Chapter 20 - Nutrition and the circadian timing system

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Abstract

Life on earth has evolved under the daily rhythm of light and dark. Consequently, most creatures experience a daily rhythm in food availability. In this review, we first introduce the mammalian circadian timing system, consisting of a central clock in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) and peripheral clocks in various metabolic tissues including liver, pancreas, and intestine. We describe how peripheral clocks are synchronized by the SCN and metabolic signals. Second, we review the influence of the circadian timing system on food intake behavior, activity of the gastrointestinal system, and several aspects of glucose and lipid metabolism. Third, the circadian control of digestion and metabolism may have important implications for several aspects of food intake in humans. Therefore, we review the human literature on health aspects of meal timing, meal frequency, and breakfast consumption, and we describe the potential implications of the clock system for the timing of enteral tube feeding and parenteral nutrition. Finally, we explore the connection between type 2 diabetes and the circadian timing system. Although the past decade has provided exciting knowledge about the reciprocal relation between biological clocks and feeding/energy metabolism, future research is necessary to further elucidate this fascinating relationship in order to improve human health.

Introduction

Ever since evolution started, life on earth is subject to the daily rhythm of light and dark. As a consequence, many organisms experience a daily rhythm in food availability. Most creatures, ranging from bacteria to humans, developed a circadian timing system to prepare for the alternating daily periods of food intake and fasting. Recent scientific work has generated a lot of knowledge about the circadian control of digestion and metabolism. There are several indications that disturbances in daily rhythms may lead to obesity and diabetes. Consequently, at present, scientists aim to use the increasing knowledge about the interaction between daily food intake rhythms and the circadian timing system to improve health.

Section snippets

Central clock

In mammals, including humans, the central biological clock resides in the bilateral hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). The SCN generates an autonomic rhythm of electrical activity with a period of approximately 24 h. This rhythm continues to oscillate even when SCN cells are removed from a living organism and brought into culture (Bos and Mirmiran, 1990, Green and Gillette, 1982, Groos and Hendriks, 1982, Welsh et al., 1995). The SCN is located superior to the optic chiasm and receives

Food intake

During the day, most people grow hungry at regular intervals. At night, however, most people sleep without the arousing effect of appetite despite the much longer period of fasting. Does the SCN modulate appetite and/or the timing of food intake?

Since the discovery of leptin, knowledge about the hypothalamic control of food intake has grown exponentially, and the key role of the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus has been revealed by numerous animal experiments. First, the arcuate nucleus contains

Meal patterns and human health

The circadian control of digestion and metabolism may have important implications for the concept of healthy food intake in humans. Next, we review the literature on the effects of meal timing, meal frequency, and breakfast consumption on human health. Furthermore, we discuss potential implications of the circadian timing system for the timing of enteral tube feeding and parenteral nutrition.

Disturbed rhythms and type 2 diabetes

Type 2 diabetes is considered a multifactorial disease caused by genetic factors and obesity due to excess caloric intake and reduced physical activity. However, several lines of evidence suggest a role of the circadian system in the pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes. We previously discussed how disturbed day–night rhythms can lead to obesity and type 2 diabetes. Interestingly, a number of alterations in the 24-h rhythms of patients with type 2 diabetes have been observed.

First, the daily

Conclusion

In order to adjust to the daily light–dark rhythm, humans possess a central brain clock in the SCN. Furthermore, virtually all cells in the body contain molecular clocks. These peripheral clocks are synchronized both by the SCN and through metabolic signals. Daily rhythms are present in appetite regulation, digestion and absorption, and carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. Thus, meal patterns may strongly influence human health. Strong clues indicate that it is better to maintain a rhythm of

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