Effects of three seasons of experimental trampling on five montane forest communities and a grassland in Western Montana, USA

doi:10.1016/0006-3207(87)90087-5

Biological Conservation

Volume 40, Issue 3, 1987, Pages 219-244

https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-3207(87)90087-5 Get rights and content

Abstract

Six vegetation types, one grassland and five forest communities, were experimentally trampled for three successive summers. The relationships between amount of trampling and vegetation cover loss, species loss, and increase in penetration resistance were strongly curvilinear, approximating an asymptotic model in most cases. The relationship between amount of trampling and increase in mineral soil exposure was linear, beyond the level of trampling required to expose mineral soil. The relative vulnerability of each vegetation type was assessed, as was the number of years of trampling required before damage levelled off. Implications for management of recreation sites and design of trampling experiments are discussed.

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Cited by (66)

Short-term impacts of trampling on selected soil and vegetation properties of alpine grassland in Qilian Mountain National Park,China
2022, Global Ecology and Conservation
Citation Excerpt :
Moreover, various studies have shown that the changes in soil organic matter on the trails are complex and even contradictory, and the relationship between organic matter and recreation disturbance remains unclear. Liddle (1997) believed that disturbed soil organic matter content is affected by many factors, and Cole (1987) also noted that how trampling affects changes in soil organic matter content is still unclear. In this study, soil pH gradually increased with the deepening of the soil layer; however, the change in pH value was not affected by trampling intensity.
Understanding the impacts of human trampling on ecological environment is necessary for the utilization and management of recreational areas. Qilian Mountain National Park is one of the first pilot areas of the national park system in China, which is also the most popular tourist destinations suitable for hiking and camping. However, there have been very few studies on human trampling in the Qilian Mountains region. We conducted a controlled trampling experiment to explore the short-term impacts of different trampling intensities (0, 50, 200, 500, and 1000 passes) on soil and vegetation in a grassland in the park. At 0–5, 5–10 and 10–20 cm soil depth, some selected soil properties were measured. Human trampling had negative impacts on surface soil properties, aboveground plant cover and height in the study area. At 0–5 cm soil depth, compared to the control site, bulk density, soil organic matter and soil penetration resistance respectively increased from 0.66 to 0.79 g/cm³, 5.5–6.5% and 9.64–13.7 kg/cm² after 1000 passes. Soil saturated hydraulic conductivity, water holding capacity and total porosity decreased from 0.29 to 0.23 mm/min, 31.62–24.07% and 46.22–34.67%, respectively. Soil properties were degraded both on the topsoil(0–5 cm) and midsoil(5–10 cm), with the greatest degradation occurring at 1000 passes, followed by 500 passes. The total vegetation cover and mean vegetation height decreased significantly with increasing trampling intensities. After different passes, the relative vegetation cover and height showed a curvilinear decrease. A reasonable threshold of visitors should be controlled between 500 and 1000 passes to ensure the quality of the landscape. Our findings suggest that human trampling of highly sensitive and fragile alpine grasslands has a significant impact and may further impede their function. Therefore, it is urgent to protect the ecological environment of alpine grasslands.
Think globally, act locally: Current understanding and future directions for nature-based tourism research in Sri Lanka
2020, Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management
For nearly a century, researchers have observed the ecological impacts arising from increased numbers of visitors using natural areas for tourism and recreational activities. This study reviews the recreational ecology literature as it is relevant to Sri Lanka providing a rare linkage between global research and local applications of this research. The likely ecological impacts of recreational activities undertaken in natural areas in Sri Lanka are identified with a particular focus on walking/hiking, camping, wildlife watching and motorized activities. We conclude by establishing a research agenda that is relevant for developing countries from the Global South and South Asia that aspire to develop their nature-based tourism industry in a sustainable manner. A particular focus should be on fundamental visitor data collection and relating such data to environmental impacts of specific recreation activities, the establishment of research networks, experimental cause-effect studies, and interdisciplinary studies. We embed this research agenda in a novel conceptual model of the factors and relationships relevant for managing impacts of nature-based tourism as a theoretical contribution to the field of recreational ecology.
The efficacy of combined educational and site management actions in reducing off-trail hiking in an urban-proximate protected area
2017, Journal of Environmental Management
Citation Excerpt :
This suggests that while the injunctive-proscriptive message was persuasive it may simply not have been read by a majority of visitors. In fact, previous studies have shown that the majority of visitors do not often read trailhead signs (Cole, 1987; Park et al., 2008). We note that although trailhead signs were placed less than 1 m from the formal trail at locations with single file traffic to maximize their reading rate, such placement appears to have had little effect.
Park and protected area managers are tasked with protecting natural environments, a particularly daunting challenge in heavily visited urban-proximate areas where flora and fauna are already stressed by external threats. In this study, an adaptive management approach was taken to reduce extensive off-trail hiking along a popular trail through an ecologically diverse and significant area in the Chesapeake and Ohio National Historical Park near Washington DC. Substantial amounts of off-trail hiking there had created an extensive 16.1 km network of informal (visitor-created) trails on a 39 ha island in the Potomac Gorge. A research design with additive treatments integrating educational and site management actions was applied and evaluated using self-reported behavior from an on-site visitor survey and unobtrusive observations of off-trail hiking behavior at two locations along the trail. Study treatments included: 1) trailhead educational signs developed using attribution theory and injunctive-proscriptive wording, 2) symbolic “no hiking” prompter signs attached to logs placed across all informal trails, 3) placement of concealing leaf litter and small branches along initial sections of informal trails, 4) restoration work on selected trails with low fencing, and 5) contact with a trail steward to personally communicate the trailhead sign information. The final, most comprehensive treatment reduced visitor-reported intentional off-trail hiking from 70.3% to 43.0%. Direct observations documented reduction in off-trail hiking from 25.9% to 2.0%. The educational message and site management actions both contributed to the decline in off-trail travel and the two evaluation methods enhanced our ability to describe the efficacy of the different treatments in reducing off-trail travel.
Evaluation of planning policy for protecting green infrastructure from loss and degradation due to residential encroachment
2015, Land Use Policy
Citation Excerpt :
Policies are particularly lacking with respect to monitoring local-scale impacts and monitoring the efficacy of policy tools, such as buffers or fences, for limiting these impacts. There are few policies for monitoring ecosystems outside of wetlands and stream corridors, yet studies indicate that terrestrial forests, particularly deciduous, are particularly sensitive to human activity impacts (Cole, 1987). Furthermore, policy goals are too vague to serve as objectives, or indicators for long term protection in monitoring programs.
Studies indicate substantial degradation and loss of urban green infrastructure area following adjacent residential development. A content analysis of Ontario’s most authoritative policy documents was performed to determine whether they had policy goals, objectives and tools for protecting designated green infrastructure from the negative impacts of residential encroachment. Results indicate few policy goals, or measurable objectives. Furthermore, few policy tools sought to limit residential encroachment within green infrastructure following point of development. Existing local government policy tools were narrowly focused on establishing boundary structures and education programs among adjacent residents, without specifying impacts of concern. Policies requiring the monitoring of impacts and tools for their mitigation were missing. Long-term protection policy goals, measurable policy objectives, and effective policy tools are required to limit the anticipated negative impacts associated with residential encroachment following development. Where impacts are uncertain, monitoring policies are required to test and improve policy effectiveness. Furthermore, adaptive management policies are required to protect essential ecosystem services from unanticipated long term impacts, such as those arriving with climate change.
Impacts of recreational human trampling on selected soil and vegetation properties of Aladag Natural Park, Turkey
2014, Catena
A controlled trampling study was conducted in Nigde–Aladag Mountains Natural Park, a popular destination for recreational activity, to explore the short-term impacts of different trampling intensities (0, 25, 75, 200, 500 passes) on soil and vegetation. Short-term recreational trampling activities do not significantly affect most of the topsoil properties. The most affected soil properties are total porosity and soil penetration resistance. The soil penetration resistance of topsoils significantly increased after 200 and 500 pass plots compared to the control plots. The soil penetration resistance, which was 3.78 kg/cm² in the topsoil of control plots, reached 6.06 kg/cm² after 500 passes. Total porosity of topsoils in 500 passes was significantly different from the control plots. While the total porosity was 52.38% in the topsoil of control plots, it decreased to 41.41% after 500 passes. In the short-term, the other soil properties remain the same in general. The relative vegetation cover and relative vegetation height also significantly decrease after trampling. The relative vegetation cover, which declined to 84% after 25 passes, decreased to 67% after 500 passes. Relative vegetation height was 69% after 25 passes and decreased to 27% after 500 passes. The significant decrease in total vegetation cover was observed after 200 and 500 passes. Compared to the control lane, vegetation height was significantly different from the 25, 75, 200 and 500 passes.
A GIS assessment and modelling of environmental sensitivity of recreational trails: The case of Gorce National Park, Poland
2011, Applied Geography
Citation Excerpt :
The most common impacts are (Cole, 1993; Hammitt & Cole, 1998b; Leung & Marion, 2000; Sun & Walsh, 1998): Changes of vegetation cover – trampling can lead to the disturbance of vegetation cover and development of bare soil (Cole, 1987, 1995; Monz, 2002; Nepal, 2003; Whinam et al., 2003). As a consequence, trails are widening (e.g. Farrell & Marion, 2002a; Hammitt & Cole, 1998a; Leung & Marion, 1996).
Protected natural areas are often subjected to severe human impacts including recreational-related impacts. Walking, hiking, horse riding, bicycling and backpacking are the most popular outdoor recreational activities in many protected areas. Trampling of vegetation and soil erosion are two main indicators of trail impact. Understanding and modelling factors related to trail and forest road degradation are crucial to park managers, who are responsible for the preservation of natural conditions and the maintenance of recreational opportunities. It is usually impossible to make direct measurements of all the factors that determine the trail impact. Hence, the use of GIS modelling to assess environmental sensitivity is encouraged. In this study, two variables have been used (1 – vulnerability of plant communities to trampling; 2 – vulnerability of soil to erosion processes) to assess the spatial distribution of areas with diversified degrees of environmental sensitivity to trail impact. These variables can be relatively easily collected and spatially modelled using GIS. The model presented in the study is simple and can be easily calculated with limited data.
Although 50% of the area of the Gorce National Park has potentially medium or low environmental sensitivity to trail impact, over 36% of its recreational trails and forest roads are constructed in sensitive areas. These roads are highly susceptible to gully erosion. One result of the model used in this study is the qualitative assessment of environmental sensitivity. Although it does not provide quantitative results (e.g. a maximum allowed number of tourists per day), it allows to study the spatial distribution of environmental vulnerability and to compare selected areas. For example, results provided by the proposed methodology can be used to determine which areas are resilient and therefore are predisposed to recreational use, and which are vulnerable and should be protected from severe human impact.

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Effects of three seasons of experimental trampling on five montane forest communities and a grassland in Western Montana, USA

Abstract

Biol. Conserv.

Biol. Conserv.

Biol. Conserv.

Recreational trampling effects on six habitat types in western Montana

Campsite impact on three western wilderness areas

Environ. Manage.

Wilderness campsite impacts: Changes over time

Trampling effects on vegetation of the trail corridors of north Rocky Mountain forests

J. appl. Ecol.

Effects of human and horse trampling on natural vegetation, Waterton Lakes National Park

Report to the Canadian Wildlife Service, Edmonton, Alberta

Plant strategies and vegetation processes

Trail deterioration in the Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness

Flora of the Pacific Northwest

The effects of human trampling and urine on subalpine vegetation, a survey of past and present backcountry use, and the ecological carrying capacity of the wilderness

The effect of human trampling on a sand dune ecosystem dominated by Empetrum nigrum

J. appl. Ecol.