Abstract
The global ongoing challenge is managing limited groundwater resources which are mainly used for irrigation and commercial uses and domestic supply. A groundwater investigation to establish baseline data for the implementation of groundwater management policy is of prime importance. The influence of natural factors, such as physiography (topography and drainage), hydraulic gradients, water table elevation and subsurface lithologic heterogeneity, is evaluated for the spatial variations of hydrochemical processes and quality for irrigation and domestic purposes. The technique utilized to establish this relationship includes the assessment of water quality, spatial analysis and multivariate statistics. Furthermore, the hydrochemical processes were unveiled using the ternary diagrams and Gibbs diagram to determine the influence of various processes. Apart from this, health risk associated with this type of groundwater and these controlling factors has also been assessed. The 94, 81, 19 and 62 percent of samples are unsuitable due to sodium adsorption ratio, residual sodium carbonate, Kelly ratio and magnesium hardness, respectively. The groundwater and the surface water constituents show characteristic hydrochemical facies, i.e., Na–HCO3 in groundwater and Ca–HCO3 in surface waters furnishing the influence of cation exchanging from north to south of the study area. In conjunction to this, the influence of precipitation, evaporation and rock water interaction is also found supporting the evidence of cation exchange process. Pearson correlation matrix revealed two significant correlations, i.e., TDS- EC, Cl−, SO2−4 and Na2+ and SO2−4 with potassium and Mg. In trace elements, Zn has a strong relation with Pb and Cu. Factor 1 includes EC, TDS, Cl−, SO2−4, Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+, K+ and Fe. Factor 2 includes HCO−3, Zn, Pb, Ni, Cd and Cu. Factor 3 includes arsenic only. A significant influence has been found by the topography, drainage, hydraulic gradients and the lithologic heterogeneity on the groundwater. Long-term usage of this water for drinking purpose pose a threat of cancer to the dwellers.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adhikari K, Mal U (2019) Application of multivariate statistics in the analysis of groundwater geochemistry in and around the open cast coal mines of Barjora block, Bankura District, West Bengal. India Environ Earth Sci 78:72. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-019-8071-0
Akhtar N, Syakir MI, Rai SP et al (2020) Multivariate investigation of heavy metals in the groundwater for irrigation and drinking in Garautha Tehsil, Jhansi District, India. Anal Lett 53:774–794. https://doi.org/10.1080/00032719.2019.1676766
Al-Shaibani AM (2008) Hydrogeology and hydrochemistry of a shallow alluvial aquifer, western Saudi Arabia. Hydrogeol J 16:155–165. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-007-0220-y
Alves RIS, Sampaio CF, Nadal M et al (2014) Metal concentrations in surface water and sediments from Pardo River, Brazil: human health risks. Environ Res 133:149–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2014.05.012
Awad A, Eldeeb H, El-Rawy M (2020) Assessment of surface and groundwater interaction using field measurements: a case study of Dairut City, Assuit Egypt. J Eng Sci Technol 15(1):406–425
Ayers R, Westcott D (1994) Water quality for agriculture. FAO irrigation and drainage paper 29 Rev. 1, Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations
Aziz Z, Bostick BC, Zheng Y et al (2017) Evidence of decoupling between arsenic and phosphate in shallow groundwater of Bangladesh and potential implications. Appl Geochem 77:167–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2016.03.001
Belkhiri L, Narany TS (2015) Using multivariate statistical analysis, geostatistical techniques and structural equation modeling to identify spatial variability of groundwater quality. Water Resour Manag 29(6):2073–2089
Belkhiri L, Mouni L (2014) Geochemical characterization of surface water and groundwater in Soummam Basin, Algeria. Nat Resour Res 23:393–407. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11053-014-9243-y
Belkhiri L, Boudoukha A, Mouni L, Baouz T (2010) Application of multivariate statistical methods and inverse geochemical modeling for characterization of groundwater a case study: Ain Azel plain (Algeria). Geoderma. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2010.08.016
Beller HR, Madrid V, Bryant Hudson G et al (2004) Biogeochemistry and natural attenuation of nitrate in groundwater at an explosives test facility. Appl Geochem 19:1483–1494. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2003.12.010
Benke MB (1998) Characterization and interaction of sugarcane industry residues with soil, kaolinite and Fe-oxides. PhD Thesis, University of Saskatchewan
Benvenuti M, Mascaro I, Corsini F et al (1997) Mine waste dumps and heavy metal pollution in abandoned mining district of Boccheggiano (Southern Tuscany, Italy). Environ Geol 30:238–243
Bhattacharyya R, Jana J, Nath B et al (2003) Groundwater As mobilization in the Bengal Delta Plain, the use of ferralite as a possible remedial measure—a case study. Appl Geochem 18:1435–1451. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-2927(03)00061-1
Bokhari A, Khan M (1992) Deterministic modelling of AI-Madinah AI-Munawarah groundwater quality using lumped parameter approach. Earth Sci 5:89–107. https://doi.org/10.4197/Ear.5-1.5
Bu J, Sun Z, Ma R et al (2020) Shallow groundwater quality and its controlling factors in the Su-Xi-Chang Region, Eastern China. Int J Environ Res Public Health 17:1267. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17041267
Chabukdhara M, Gupta SK, Kotecha Y, Nema AK (2017) Groundwater quality in Ghaziabad district, Uttar Pradesh, India: multivariate and health risk assessment. Chemosphere 179:167–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.03.086
Charlet L, Polya DA (2006) Arsenic in shallow, reducing groundwaters in Southern Asia: an environmental health disaster. Elements 2:91–96. https://doi.org/10.2113/gselements.2.2.91
Chebotarev II (1955) Metamorphism of natural waters in the crust of weathering—1. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 8:22–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(55)90015-6
Chitsazan M, Vardanjani HK, Karimi H, Charchi A (2015) A comparison between karst development in two main zones of Iran:case study—Keyno anticline (Zagros Range) and Shotori anticline (Central Iran). Arab J Geosci 8:10833–10844
Cloutier V, Lefebvre R, Therrien R, Savard MM (2008) Multivariate statistical analysis of geochemical data as indicative of the hydrogeochemical evolution of groundwater in a sedimentary rock aquifer system. J Hydrol 353:294–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2008.02.015
Cole JA (1974) Groundwater pollution in Europe. In: Conference on Groundwater Pollution in Europe (1972: Reading, Eng.). Water Information Center, NY
Condon LE, Maxwell RM (2015) Evaluating the relationship between topography and groundwater using outputs from a continental-scale integrated hydrology model. Water Resour Res 51:6602–6621. https://doi.org/10.1002/2014WR016774
De Miguel E, Iribarren I, Chacon E, Ordonez A, Charlesworth S (2007) Risk-based evaluation of the exposure of children to trace elements in playgrounds in Madrid (Spain). Chemosphere 66:505–513
Delin GN, Healy RW, Landon MK, Böhlke JK (2000) Effects of topography and soil properties on recharge at two sites in an agricultural field. J Am Water Resources Assoc 36:1401–1416. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-1688.2000.tb05735.x
Doneen LD (1966) Water quality requirement for agriculture. In: Proceedings of the national symposium quality standard for natural waters. University of Michigan, annual report, pp 213–218
Egbueri JC (2019) Evaluation and characterization of the groundwater quality and hydrogeochemistry of Ogbaru farming district in southeastern Nigeria. SN Appl Sci 1:851. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-019-0853-1
El-Rawy M, Ismail E, Abdalla O (2019) Assessment of groundwater quality using GIS, hydrogeochemistry, and factor statistical analysis in Qena Governorate. Egypt Desalin Water Treat 162:14–29
Emenike PC, Tenebe I, Ogarekpe N et al (2019) Probabilistic risk assessment and spatial distribution of potentially toxic elements in groundwater sources in Southwestern Nigeria. Sci Rep 9:15920. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-52325-z
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC. Final EPA/540/R/99/005, OSWER 9285.7-02EP PB99-963312 July 2004
EU (2015) EU Directive EU 2015/1787 of the European parliament and of the council of 6 october 2015 amending annexes II and III to council directive 98/83/EC on the quality of water intended for human consumption Off. J Eur Union L260/6 (2015), pp 6–17
Everest T, Özcan H (2019) Applying multivariate statistics for identification of groundwater resources and qualities in NW Turkey. Environ Monit Assess 191:47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-018-7165-6
Farooqi A (2015) Status of As and F− groundwater and soil pollution in Pakistan. In Arsenic and fluoride contamination. Springer, New Delhi, pp 21–33
Feenstra L, Erkel J van, Vasak L (2009) Arsenic in groundwater: Overview and evaluation of removal methods. IGRAC Report SP 2007-2
Freeze RA, Cherry JA (1979) Groundwater. Prentice-Hall, New Jersey
Gibbs RJ (1970) Mechanisms controlling world water chemistry. Science 170:1088–1090
Giri S, Singh AK (2014) Risk assessment, statistical source identification and seasonal fluctuation of dissolved metals in the Subarnarekha River, India. J Hazard Mater 265:305–314
Guo X, Zuo R, Meng L et al (2018) Seasonal and spatial variability of anthropogenic and natural factors influencing groundwater quality based on source apportionment. Int J Environ Res Public Health 15:279. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15020279
Haapalehto T, Kotiaho JS, Matilainen R, Tahvanainen T (2014) The effects of long-term drainage and subsequent restoration on water table level and pore water chemistry in boreal peatlands. J Hydrol 519:1493–1505. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.09.013
Harvey JW, McCormick PV (2009) Groundwater’s significance to changing hydrology, water chemistry, and biological communities of a floodplain ecosystem, Everglades, South Florida, USA. Hydrogeol J 17:185–201. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-008-0379-x
Hering JG, Burris D, Reisinger HJ, O’Day P (2008) Environmental fate and exposure assessment for arsenic in groundwater. California Inst of Tech Pasadena SERDP Project ER-1374
Iqbal J, Shah MH, Akhter G (2013) Characterization, source apportionment and health risk assessment of trace metals in freshwater Rawal Lake, Pakistan. J Geochem Explor 125:94–101
Kapaj S, Peterson H, Liber K, Bhattacharya P (2006) Human health effects from chronic arsenic poisoning–a review. J Environ Sci Health A 41:2399–2428. https://doi.org/10.1080/10934520600873571
Karanth KR (1987) Ground water assessment: development and management. Tata McGraw-Hill Education, New York
Keerthy K, Chandran S (2020) Analysis of ground water quality using statistical techniques: a case study of Madurai City. In: Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning Applications in Civil, Mechanical, and Industrial Engineering. IGI Global, pp 152–161
Kelly WP (1951) Alkali soils—their formation, properties and reclamation. Reinhold Publ, New York
Khalil B, Ouarda TBMJ, St-Hilaire A, Chebana F (2010) A statistical approach for the rationalization of water quality indicators in surface water quality monitoring networks. J Hydrol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.03.019
Kim K-H, Yun S-T, Park S-S et al (2014) Model-based clustering of hydrochemical data to demarcate natural versus human impacts on bedrock groundwater quality in rural areas, South Korea. J Hydrol 519:626–636. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.07.055
Koklu R, Sengorur B, Topal B (2010) water quality assessment using multivariate statistical methods—a case study: Melen River system (Turkey). Water Resour Manage 24:959–978. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-009-9481-7
Kotowski T, Kachnic M (2016) The geochemical study of groundwaters from Cenozoic aquifers in the Gwda catchment (Western Pomerania, Poland). Environ Earth Sci 75:192. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-015-4962-x
Kumar SK, Rammohan V, Sahayam JD, Jeevanandam M (2009) Assessment of groundwater quality and hydrogeochemistry of Manimuktha River basin, Tamil Nadu, India. Environ Monit Assess 159:341–351. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-008-0633-7
Li S, Zhang Q (2010) Risk assessment and seasonal variations of dissolved trace elements and heavy metals in the Upper Han River, China. J Hazard Mater 181:1051–1058
Li P, Wu J, Qian H (2013) Assessment of groundwater quality for irrigation purposes and identification of hydrogeochemical evolution mechanisms in Pengyang County, China. Environ Earth Sci 69:2211–2225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-012-2049-5
Li P, Li X, Meng X et al (2016) Appraising groundwater quality and health risks from contamination in a Semiarid Region of Northwest China. Expo Health 8:361–379. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-016-0205-y
Liang F, Yang S, Sun C (2011) Primary health risk analysis of metals in surface water of Taihu Lake, China. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 87:404–408
Liu N, Ni T, Xia J, Dai M, He C, Lu G (2011) Non-carcinogenic risks induced by metals in drinking source water of Jiangsu Province, China. Environ Monit Assess 177:449–456
Lovchinov V, Tsakovski S (2006) Multivariate statistical approaches as applied to environmental physics studies. Cent Eur J Phys 4(2):277–298
Lusczynski NJ, Swarzenski WV (1996) Saltwater encroachment in Southern Nassu and SE Queen countries, long Island. USGS Paper, New York, p 1613
Ma YK, Liu A, Egodawatta P, McGree J, Goonetilleke A (2017) Assessment and management of human health risk from toxic metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urban stormwater arising from anthropogenic activities and traffic congestion. Sci Total Environ 579:202–211
Mahapatra SR, Venugopal T, Shanmugasundaram A et al (2020) Heavy metal index and geographical information system (GIS) approach to study heavy metal contamination: a case study of north Chennai groundwater. Appl Water Sci 10:238. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-020-01321-0
Mahaqi A, Moheghi MM, Mehiqi M, Moheghy MA (2018) Hydrogeochemical characteristics and groundwater quality assessment for drinking and irrigation purposes in the Mazar-i-Sharif city. North Afghan Appl Water Sci 8:133. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-018-0768-9
Majumdar PK, Ghosh NC, Chakravorty B (2002) Analysis of arsenic-contaminated groundwater domain in the Nadia district of West Bengal (India). Hydrol Sci J 47:S55–S66. https://doi.org/10.1080/02626660209493022
Mandal P (2017) An insight of environmental contamination of arsenic on animal health. Emerg Contam 3:17–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emcon.2017.01.004
Marandi A, Shand P (2018) Groundwater chemistry and the Gibbs Diagram. Appl Geochem 97:209–212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2018.07.009
Matschullat J (2000) Arsenic in the geosphere—a review. Sci Total Environ 249:297–312. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-9697(99)00524-0
McArthur JM, Banerjee DM, Hudson-Edwards KA et al (2004) Natural organic matter in sedimentary basins and its relation to arsenic in anoxic ground water: the example of West Bengal and its worldwide implications. Appl Geochem 19:1255–1293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2004.02.001
Mohammadi AA, Zarei A, Majidi S et al (2019) Carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic health risk assessment of heavy metals in drinking water of Khorramabad. Iran MethodsX 6:1642–1651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mex.2019.07.017
Mohammed Abdul KS, Jayasinghe SS, Chandana EPS et al (2015) Arsenic and human health effects: a review. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 40:828–846. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etap.2015.09.016
Nagaraju A, Balaji E, Sun LH, Thejaswi A (2018) Processes controlling groundwater chemistry from mulakalacheruvu area, Chittoor District, Andhra Pradesh, South India: A statistical approach based on hydrochemistry. J Geol Soc India 91:425–430. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12594-018-0875-0
Naqvi AH (1977) Groundwater conditions in Paharpur area, Dera Ismail Khan district, NWFP. Hydrogeol Sect Plan Dir Water Power Dev Auth (WAPDA) 2:10–20
Neumann RB, Ashfaque KN, Badruzzaman ABM et al (2009) Anthropogenic influences on groundwater arsenic concentrations in Bangladesh. Nat Geosci 3:46
Nickson RT, McArthur JM, Shrestha B et al (2005) Arsenic and other drinking water quality issues, Muzaffargarh District, Pakistan. Appl Geochem 20:55–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2004.06.004
Ou C, St-Hilaire A, Ouarda TB et al (2012) Coupling geostatistical approaches with PCA and fuzzy optimal model (FOM) for the integrated assessment of sampling locations of water quality monitoring networks (WQMNs). J Environ Monit. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2em30372h
Owamah HI (2020) A comprehensive assessment of groundwater quality for drinking purpose in a Nigerian rural Niger delta community. Groundw Sustain Dev 10:100286
Pandey AS, Walraevens K (2019) Hydrogeochemical analysis of part of the alluvial aquifer, Rupendehi District Nepal. J Nepal Geol Soc 58:171–180. https://doi.org/10.3126/jngs.v58i0.24602
Papatheodorou G, Lambrakis N, Panagopoulos G (2007) Application of multivariate statistical procedures to the hydrochemical study of a coastal aquifer: an example from Crete, Greece. Hydrol Process 21:1482–1495. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.6322
Pichler T, Renshaw CE, Sültenfuß J (2017) Geogenic As and Mo groundwater contamination caused by an abundance of domestic supply wells. Appl Geochem 77:68–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2016.03.002
Piper AM (1944) A graphic procedure in the geochemical interpretation of water-analyses. EOS Trans Am Geophys Union 25:914–928. https://doi.org/10.1029/TR025i006p00914
Qadir A, Ahmad Z, Khan T et al (2016) A spatio-temporal three-dimensional conceptualization and simulation of Dera Ismail Khan alluvial aquifer in visual MODFLOW: a case study from Pakistan. Arab J Geosci. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-015-2069-z
Rashid A, Khattak SA, Ali L et al (2019) Geochemical profile and source identification of surface and groundwater pollution of District Chitral, Northern Pakistan. Microchem J 145:1058–1065. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2018.12.025
Saatsaz M, Sulaiman WNA, Eslamian S, Mohammadi K (2013) Hydrogeochemistry and groundwater quality assessment of Astaneh-Kouchesfahan Plain, Northern Iran. Int J Water 7:44–65. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJW.2013.051978
Saleem M, Iqbal J, Shah MH (2014) Dissolved concentrations, sources and risk evaluation of selected metals in surface water from Mangla Lake, Pakistan. Sci World J 2:948396
Saleh A, Al-Ruwaih F, Shehata M (1999) Hydrogeochemical processes operating within the main aquifers of Kuwait. J Arid Environ 42:195–209. https://doi.org/10.1006/jare.1999.0511
Shakoor MB, Bibi I, Niazi NK et al (2018) The evaluation of arsenic contamination potential, speciation and hydrogeochemical behaviour in aquifers of Punjab, Pakistan. Chemosphere 199:737–746. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.02.002
Shimpi S, Rokade VM, Upasani K (2019) Application of remote sensing and GIS for groundwater potential zonation: a case study of Bori-Chikli Watershed, Maharashtra, India. Bull Pure Appl Sci Geol 38:114–117
Shyu GS, Cheng BY, Chiang CT et al (2011) Applying factor analysis combined with kriging and information entropy theory for mapping and evaluating the stability of groundwater quality variation in Taiwan. Int J Environ Res Public Health. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph8041084
Singh UK, Ramanathan AL, Subramanian V (2018) Groundwater chemistry and human health risk assessment in the mining region of East Singhbhum, Jharkhand, India. Chemosphere 204:501–513
Smedley PL, Kinniburgh DG (2002) A review of the source, behaviour and distribution of arsenic in natural waters. Appl Geochem 17:517–568. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-2927(02)00018-5
Subba Rao N, Srihari Ch, Deepthi Spandana B et al (2019) Comprehensive understanding of groundwater quality and hydrogeochemistry for the sustainable development of suburban area of Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India. Hum Ecol Risk Assess Int J 25:52–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2019.1571403
Szabolcs I, Darab C (1964) The influence of irrigation water of high sodium carbonate content of soils. In: Proceedings of 8th international congress of ISSS, Trans, vol 2, pp 803–812
Tiwari AK, Orioli S, De Maio M (2019) Assessment of groundwater geochemistry and diffusion of hexavalent chromium contamination in an industrial town of Italy. J Contam Hydrol 225:103503. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconhyd.2019.103503
USEPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency) (1989) Development of risk assessment methodology for land application and distribution and marketing of municipal sludge, EPA/600/6-89/001
USEPA (2000) Drinking water standards and health advisories
USEPA (2004) Risk assessment guidance for superfund. In: Human health evaluation manual (Part E), supplemental guidance for dermal risk assessment, vol 1. Office of Superfund Remediation and Technology Innovation, United States
USEPA (2005) Guidelines for carcinogen risk assessment. In: USEPA. https://www.epa.gov/risk/guidelines-carcinogen-risk-assessment. Accessed 11 Feb 2020
Wallick EI (1981) Chemical evolution of groundwater in a drainage basin of Holocene age, east-central Alberta, Cannada. J Hydrol 54:245–283. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(81)90163-3
WHO (2015) Drinking-water fact sheet N° 391. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs391/en/. Accessed Feb 2016
Wickramarathna S, Balasooriya S, Diyabalanage S, Chandrajith R (2017) Tracing environmental aetiological factors of chronic kidney diseases in the dry zone of Sri Lanka—A hydrogeochemical and isotope approach. J Trace Elem Med Biol 44:298–306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemb.2017.08.013
Wiltse J, Dellarco VL (1996) U.S. environmental protection agency guidelines for carcinogen risk assessment: past and future. Mutat Res Rev Genet Toxicol 365:3–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-1110(96)90009-3
Wu B, Zhao DY, Jia HY, Zhang Y, Zhang XX, Cheng SP (2009) Preliminary risk assessment of trace metal pollution in surface water from Yangtze River in Nanjing Section, China. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 82:405–409
Yidana SM, Yidana A (2010) Assessing water quality using water quality index and multivariate analysis. Environ Earth Sci 59:1461–1473. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-009-0132-3
Yidana SM, Ophori D, Banoeng-Yakubo B (2008) A multivariate statistical analysis of surface water chemistry data: the Ankobra Basin. Ghana J Environ Manag. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2006.11.023
Yidana SM, Banoeng-Yakubo B, Akabzaa TM (2010) Analysis of groundwater quality using multivariate and spatial analyses in the Keta basin, Ghana. J Afr Earth Sci 58:220–234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2010.03.003
Acknowledgments
The Higher Education Commission is acknowledged for providing funds regarding this research work (B.0278). The authors are thankful to Dr. M. Azam Tasneem for analyzing the groundwater samples at the Pakistan Institute of Science and Technology (PINSTECH), Islamabad, Pakistan. Dr. Muneer Hussain Shah from the Department of Chemistry, Quaid-I-Azam University is acknowledged for his kind guidance for Health Risk Assessment. The authors are thankful to the reviewers for their valuable suggestions and guidelines for improvement.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Qadir, A., El-Rawy, M. Impact Assessment of Physiography, Subsurface Hydraulic Gradients and Lithologic Heterogeneity on the Groundwater Quality. Iran J Sci Technol Trans Civ Eng 46, 1459–1480 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40996-021-00646-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40996-021-00646-3