Subjective well-being is a person’s positive life experiences defined by their own standards (Diener, 1984). Life satisfaction is one primary indicator of subjective well-being, defined as an individual’s overall cognitive appraisal of the quality of their life (Diener et al., 1999). The importance of life satisfaction in adolescent adjustment has been supported by evidence showing the correlations between life satisfaction and better academic outcomes (Antaramian, 2017; State & Kern, 2017), fewer school problems (Greenspoon & Saklofske, 1997), and less mental health problems (Gilman & Huebner, 2006; Lin & Yi, 2019; Zheng et al., 2019). Consistent evidence has revealed the negative impact of perceived stress on adolescent life satisfaction (Moksnes et al., 2016; Zheng, et al., 2019). However, less is known about what protects adolescents’ life satisfaction, beyond mental health problems such as depression, given specific stress faced by adolescents, especially among African American adolescents. The current study aimed to examine if ethnic identity (i.e., feelings of belonging to one’s group; Phinney, 1992), a crucial aspect of identity development during adolescence (Worrell & Gardner-Kitt, 2006), moderates the relation between peer stress and life satisfaction among adolescents representing diverse ethnic groups. The findings supported interventions that target positive ethnic identity among adolescents as a protective factor for their well-being.

Peer Stress During Adolescence

Research has contended that adolescence is the one life-stage most marked by rapid growth and transition (Brockman, 2003; Cook & Furstenberg, 2002) and heightened stress (Katz & Greenberg, 2015; Zheng et al., 2019). Adolescence is also a period when children begin to gain more autonomy outside of the family structure, spend more time with peers, and emotionally rely more on peer relationships (Jhang, 2019; Jiang et al., 2019). Peer stress becomes more influential during this time, stemming from feeling pressured to conform or become a part of the in-group, a lack of peer acceptance, being teased, hassled, bullied, or excluded. Elevated peer stress is associated with stronger feelings of loneliness and alienation, increased risk of dropping out of school and increased symptomatology (i.e., depression; Lau, 2002), and lower life satisfaction (Goldbeck et al., 2007; Grant et al., 2004; Zheng et al., 2019). Additionally, research has found that female adolescents experience significantly more peer stress compared to male adolescents (Hankin et al., 2007; Rudolph, 2002; Shih et al., 2006). When adolescents have trouble coping with stress from peer relationships, it threatens adolescent well-being (Zimmer-Gembeck, 2016). One critical approach to help adolescents cope with peer stress is understanding the protective factors.

Ethnic Identity and Adolescent Development

Social Identity Theory

Tajfel’s (1982) social identity theory provides a strong foundation to study the importance of ethnic identity development among adolescents. Social identities are based on one’s sense of belonging to a group, including the affective value related to attitudes and feelings towards a particular group (Tajfel, 1982). Social identity theory posits that one’s social identity is an important source of self-image (Tajfel, 1979). For example, under social identity theory, people strive to maintain or improve their self-esteem (Tajfel & Turner, 2004). Social identity theory suggests that adolescents who hold positive views regarding their social groups can develop a positive sense of self, and adolescents’ views about their ethnic groups will also contribute to their self-perception (Lee et al., 2018).

Ethnic Identity

Ethnic identity is also a part of social identity that grows from one’s sense of ethnic group membership (Lee et al., 2018). Ethnic identity is the “feeling of belonging to one’s group, a clear understanding of the meaning of one’s [group] membership, positive attitudes towards the group, familiarity with its history and culture, and involvement in its practices (Phinney, 1992).” Further, ethnic identity is an individual’s self-concept that includes value and emotional significance attached to membership in a specific group (Tajfel, 1981). Phinney (1989, 1990, 1992; Phinney and Ong, 2007) uses Tajfel’s (1982) social identity theory to describe ethnic identity development as a dynamic multidimensional process that changes over time. In ethnic identity development, one must self-identify as a member of an ethnic group. This self-identification, or self-categorization, is an essential element of group identity (Ashmore et al., 2004). In the current study, ethnic identity is operationalized through three characteristics, measured by the original Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM; Phinney, 1992), including (1) ethnic attachment and belonging, which refers to one’s commitment and positive feelings toward one’s group; (2) ethnic behaviors, which involve practices specific to particular groups, including language, food, and social interactions with other members of one’s group, and (3) ethnic identity achievement, which involves the experience of exploration that one undergoes to form a secure sense of self as a member of a specific group (Phinney, 1992; Phinney & Ong, 2007). Marcia’s (1966, 1980) and Phinney’s (1989, 1990, 1992; Phinney and Ong, 2007) assessments of ethnic identity development have been the foundation for many studies that have examined the importance of ethnic identity in adolescent identity development and well-being.

Ethnic and Gender Differences in Ethnic Identity

Relevant minority ethnic identity literature has suggested that ethnic identity development, as part of socialization, has more significant meaning for minoritized youth compared to European Americans. For example, African American parents have more vital awareness to prepare their children for better coping with ethnicity related stressors such as racism and discrimination (Saleem et al., 2016), and it is common for African American parents to teach their children about the values and perspectives of their ethnicity early on (Hughes & DuMont, 1993; Hughes et al., 2006). The school context also plays a role in adolescents’ ethnic identity. For example, in a study with a sample of adolescents of Mexican descent, Umaña-Taylor (2004) found that adolescents who attended a predominately non-Latinx school reported higher levels of ethnic identity than adolescents in other schools. In addition, some gender differences are identified, as research suggests that among minoritized adolescents, females are more likely to develop strong ties to their ethnic culture and community than male counterparts. In contrast, males are more likely to develop an awareness of obstacles in seeking equality with the dominant society (Chae, 2002; Phinney, 1990).

Ethnic Identity and Adolescent Well-being

The importance of ethnic identity to self-concept and self-esteem is well documented across various ethnic groups, including African Americans, Latinx communities, Asian communities, and European Americans (Cross, 1978; Martinez & Dukes, 1997; Rosenthal & Hrynevich, 1985). In several studies with adolescents of Mexican descent, researchers revealed that ethnic identity positively and significantly predicted better self-esteem (Piña-Watson et al., 2013; Umaña-Taylor, 2004), lower levels of depressive symptoms (Piña-Watson et al., 2017), and higher life satisfaction (Piña-Watson et al., 2013, 2017). Piña-Watson and colleagues (2017) further discovered that ethnic identity development directly affects life satisfaction and indirectly affects life satisfaction via self-esteem. In a similar vein, in a sample of Chinese American adolescents, researchers found that youth’s positive affect toward their ethnic group was positively associated with higher self-esteem and fewer depressive symptoms (Rivas-Drake et al., 2008). Another study with Chinese American adolescents found that ethnic identity salience was associated with positive well-being only for those who had moderate or high global ethnic identity (Yip & Fuligni, 2002). In addition, Brown and Chu (2012) found that for Latinx children who were minoritized in their school, a positive ethnic identity both directly predicted positive academic outcomes and buffered against the negative effects of discrimination.

Taken together, a positive relation between ethnic identity and well-being among adolescents has been established, but there is a need for examining the role of ethnic identity in adolescents’ well-being in the context of stress. Existing moderation studies support the importance of holding a positive perception of one’s ethnic group in the context of various stressors for adolescents to maintain positive well-being (Kiang et al., 2006; Piña-Watson et al., 2013; Rivas-Drake et al., 2008; Romero et al., 2014; Stein et al., 2014). For example, using normative stressors, Kiang and colleagues (2006) found that ethnic regard (i.e., positive perceptions about one’s ethnic group) buffered the negative effect of stressors on daily psychological well-being among a sample of adolescents of Mexican and Chinese descent. However, most other cited studies focused on one specific ethnic group (i.e., Mexican or Asian American adolescents). Only one cited study focused on life satisfaction as an outcome variable (Piña-Watson et al., 2013). Thus, there is a need to test if these studies’ results can be generalizable to other ethnic groups, such as African American adolescents.

The Current Study

The literature has indicated the importance of ethnic identity in overall identity development, especially during adolescence, such that positive group membership aids in increased well-being. Previous research also has suggested the adverse effects of various stressors on well-being outcomes among adolescents. However, there remains a dearth of research that examines the protective factors of well-being in the specific context of stressors among adolescents of color. Based on social identity theory and relevant research, the current study examined if ethnic identity moderates the effects of peer stress on life satisfaction among diverse ethnic groups of adolescents, and in two specific ethnic groups (African American and European American). Three models were tested: (1) ethnic identity as the single moderator in the full sample (Fig. 1a); (2) ethnic identity and self-identified ethnicity as the double moderators in the subsample of African American and European American participants only (other ethnic groups were excluded due to small sample size; See Fig. 1b; and (3) ethnic identity as the first moderator and self-identified ethnicity as the second moderator (so a three-way interaction can be tested), with other variables remaining the same as Model 2 (Fig. 1c). Binary gender was included as a covariate in all the models based on prior research that indicated gender differences existed for life satisfaction (Chen et al., 2020). Findings from the present study may contribute to a better understanding of if and how ethnic identity works as a protective factor in buffering the relation between adolescent peer stress and life satisfaction.

Fig. 1
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Conceptual models of the moderation effect of ethnic identity on the relation of peer stress and life satisfaction

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Method

Participants

Participants consisted of students from a public high school located in the mid-south region of the USA, with state data indicating an ethnically and economically diverse student population (for review, see Blind State Department of Education). Recruitment of participants occurred in the spring semester of 2020 (prior to remote schooling due to the COVID-19 pandemic). Students ranged from 14 to 18 years of age (M = 16.32, SD = 1.11, n = 417; female 63.0%, male 32.8%, and gender variant or non-conforming students 1.9%). Participants identified ethnicity through an item on the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM). Most of the sample consisted of African American students (32.6%) and European American students (32.1%). Other ethnic groups comprised students who identified as Asian American (15.0%), Hispanic or Latinx (10.5%), Biracial or Multiracial (6.6%), and Other (0.7%).

Procedure

The data used in this study are part of a larger research project that investigates positive strengths and well-being in adolescents. All the students in grades 9–12 were eligible and invited to participate in the study. After obtaining parental consent and student assent, participants completed an anonymous survey on paper, which took approximately 30 min in the classroom. Teachers read instructions following a standardized script. Research assistants were available during the administration to address student questions. Participation was voluntary, and students were permitted to skip questions or conclude participation at any time. Small rewards (e.g., fruit snacks, cookies) were given for their participation.

Measures

Adolescent Stress Questionnaire (ASQ)

The ASQ (Byrne et al., 2007) is a 58-item measure that assesses adolescent stressors. Items are answered on a five-point scale that ranges from “not at all stressful (or irrelevant)” to “very stressful.” The subscale of stress of peer pressure with seven items was used in the current study. An example item is “Pressure to fit in with peers.” Past studies have provided alpha reliability coefficients ranging from 0.78 to 0.92 (Byrne et al., 2007; McKay et al., 2016). Good concurrent criterion and construct validity was also demonstrated by previous research (Byrne et al., 2007; McKay et al., 2016). The ASQ has good internal consistency in the current sample, and the Stress of Peer Pressure subscale has an alpha coefficient of 0.88.

Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM)

The MEIMFootnote 1 (Phinney, 1992) is a 20-item measure that consists of 14 ethnic identity items (i.e., behaviors, affirmation and belonging, and achievement) and six other group orientation items (i.e., willingness to learn about and interact with other ethnic groups). Items are answered on a five-point scale ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree.” The 14 ethnic identity items derive the total Ethnic Identity score and are included in the present study. Past studies have provided alpha coefficients ranging from 0.81 to 0.90 for the total Ethnic Identity score (Phinney, 1992; Stein et al., 2014; Worrell et al., 2006). Previous research has also revealed support for structural validity of the scale (Lee et al., 2001; Phinney, 1992; Ponterotto et al., 2003; Reese et al., 1998). The MEIM has good internal consistency in the current sample with an alpha coefficient of 0.89.

Brief Multidimensional Students’ Life Satisfaction Scale (BMSLSS)

The BMSLSS (Seligson et al., 2003) is a six-item measure that assesses life satisfaction among children and adolescents across the domains of family life, friendships, school experience, self, living environment, and overall life. Items are answered on a seven-point scale that ranges from “terrible” to “delighted.” The items are summed to create a total (i.e., global) life satisfaction score, with higher scores representing higher levels of life satisfaction. Previous research has provided an alpha reliability coefficient of 0.75 and support for criterion, construct, convergent, and discriminant validity (Seligson et al., 2003). The alpha reliability coefficient of this scale for the current study is 0.81.

Analytic Plan

Following the suggestions made by Tabachnick and Fidell (2013), the current data was evaluated for issues of missingness and non-normality. Descriptive statistics were used to detect out-of-range values, confirm plausible means and standard deviations, and locate univariate outliers. Pearson correlation analyses were calculated to evaluate for issues of multicollinearity and singularity and to examine the strength and direction of associations among study variables. Additionally, analyses of variance (ANOVA) and t-tests were conducted to assess mean level comparisons across ethnic groups. Missing values were addressed via Little’s missing data test and estimation maximization. Preliminary analyses were performed using the IBM Statistical Package for Social Sciences (IBM SPSS) statistics 27.0 (IBM Corp, 2020).

The PROCESS macro for SPSS (Hayes, 2018) is a mathematical tool designed to run observed variable path analysis–based moderation and mediation analyses and conditional process analyses. The PROCESS uses ordinary least square regression to provide estimates of model coefficients, standard errors, t- and p-values, and confidence intervals. The first model was tested using the Model Template 1 (Fig. 1a). The model examined the relation between peer stress and life satisfaction, moderated by overall ethnic identity. In the statistical model, one variable (XW) was created based on the product of peer stress (X) and ethnic identity (W) to detect the interaction between peer stress and ethnic identity. Next, the second model was tested using Model Template 2 (Fig. 1b). The model examined the relation between peer stress and life satisfaction, moderated by ethnic identity and ethnicity. In the statistical model, one variable (XW) was created based on the product of peer stress (X) and ethnic identity (W). Another variable (XZ) was also created based on the product of peer stress (X) and ethnicity (Z) to detect the interaction between peer stress and ethnicity. In the three-way interaction model, a new variable (XWZ) was created to represent the product of peer stress (X), ethnic identity (W) and ethnicity (Z) to detect the interaction between peer stress, ethnic identity and ethnicity. Binary gender was included as a covariate in all the models based on prior research that indicated gender differences existed for life satisfaction (Chen et al., 2020). Due to a very small sample size (n = 8), gender variant and/or non-conforming participants were not included in the preliminary or primary analyses. Additionally, other minority ethnic groups were not included in Model 2 and 3 analyses due to small sample sizes (Asian American n = 64, Latinx n = 45). All the continuous variables were mean centered to aid in interpretation of results (Fairchild & McQuillin, 2010). If the models revealed significant interaction effects, conditional analyses were conducted. These tests detected how the direction and the strength of the association between peer stress and life satisfaction changed depending upon ethnicity (African American and European American) and/or across low (1 SD below the mean), moderate (mean level), and high (1 SD above the mean) levels of ethnic identity.

Results

Preliminary Analyses

Demographics of each ethnic group and average levels of the study variables for each ethnic group are shown in Table 1. The average level of peer stress indicated that, generally, adolescents in this sample reported perceived peer stress between “A Little Stressful” and “Moderately Stressful” (M = 2.43). The average level of life satisfaction (M = 5.11) fell between “Mostly Satisfied” and “Pleased,” indicating relatively high levels of life satisfaction. Following the suggestions made by George and Mallery (2010) and other previous researchers (Curran et al., 1996; Muthén & Kaplan, 1985, 1992), the skewness and kurtosis of the variables in the current study indicate a normal distribution of the data as the skewness values do not exceed + / − 2.0 and the kurtosis values do not exceed + / − 7.0.

Table 1 Means/standard deviation of peer stress, ethnic identity, and life satisfaction by full sample, ethnic and gender groups
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A one-way between-groups ANOVA was conducted to explore the ethnic differences in levels of ethnic identity. Participants were placed into four groups according to their self-reported ethnicity (Group 1: Asian American, Group 2: African American, Group 3: Latinx, Group 4: European American). There was a significant difference in levels of ethnic identity reported among ethnic groups, F(3, 381) = 39.70, p < 0.01. Post hoc comparisons using the Tukey HSD test indicated that the mean score for European American participants (M = 2.55, SD = 0.54) was significantly lower than Asian American (M = 3.27, SD = 0.45), African American (M = 3.09, SD = 0.54) and Latinx participants (M = 3.09, SD = 0.54).

All the main variables were significantly correlated (p < 0.01; See Table 2). Using Cohen’s (1988) interpretation of correlation coefficient’s magnitude, life satisfaction significantly correlated with ethnic identity (r = 0.30) and peer stress (r = − 0.44). Ethnic identity was significantly correlated with peer stress (r = − 0.19).

Table 2 Correlations between main variables
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Primary Analyses

Model 1 was significant in predicting life satisfaction (F = 31.13, R2 = 0.26, p < 0.001; Table 3). Gender was significant in predicting life satisfaction. The interaction between ethnic identity and peer stress was not significant. Main effects of ethnic identity (b = − 0.39, SE = 0.07, p < 0.001) and peer stress (b = − 0.37, SE = 0.05, p < 0.001) were significant.

Table 3 Moderating effect of ethnic identity on the relation between peer stress and life satisfaction
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In Model 2, the overall model was significant in predicting life satisfaction (F = 19.54, R2 = 0.31, p < 0.001). Gender significantly predicted life satisfaction (b =  − 0.27, SE = 0.11, p = 0.013). The interaction effect between peer stress and ethnic identity was significant (b = 0.24, SE = 0.12, p < 0.05). The interaction effect between peer stress and ethnicity was also significant (b = 0.31, SE = 0.13, p < 0.05). The regression results of all the moderation models are shown in Table 3. Further, the conditional analysis results (See Table 4 and Fig. 2) showed that as the levels of ethnic identity strengthened, the negative association between peer stress and life satisfaction weakened for both African American and European American groups. The slight difference between these two groups is that the negative effect of peer stress on life satisfaction was significant across all levels of ethnic identity for African American adolescents, but only significant at medium and low levels of ethnic identity for European American adolescents.

Table 4 Conditional effects of peer stress on life satisfaction at levels of ethnic identity and ethnicity
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Fig. 2
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Conditional effects of peer stress on life satisfaction at levels of ethnic identity and ethnicity

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In Model 3, the overall model significantly predicted life satisfaction (F = 15.35, R2 = 0.32, p < 0.001). The three-way interaction effect between peer stress, ethnic identity, and ethnicity on life satisfaction was non-significant (b = − 0.23, SE = 0.27, p = 0.399). Peer stress (b = − 0.85, SE = 0.25, p = 0.001) and ethnicity (b = 0.59, SE = 0.12, p < 0.001) had significant main effects on life satisfaction. Ethnic identity did not show a significant main effect (b = 0.66, SE = 0.38, p = 0.086). Gender, as a covariate, was significant in predicting life satisfaction (b = − 0.27, SE = 0.11, p = 0.017).

Discussion

The current study sought to explore the possible moderating role of ethnic identity in the context of adolescent peer stress in affecting life satisfaction. Three possible mechanisms were examined to identify if ethnic identity alone (Model 1), ethnic identity and ethnicity as moderators (Model 2) moderated the relations between peer stress and life satisfaction, or if there was three-way interaction between peer stress, ethnic identity and ethnicity to predict life satisfaction (Model 3). Results showed that only the interactions in Model 2 were significant. The main findings are discussed in more detail below.

The positive, medium correlation between life satisfaction and ethnic identity is similar to findings in previous research (Piña-Watson et al., 2017; Smith & Silva, 2011). Group difference analysis showed that European Americans reported a lower level of ethnic identity than other ethnic groups, consistent with the literature (Martinez & Dukes, 1997; Spencer et al., 2000). In the single moderator model with the entire sample, the main effect of ethnic identity on life satisfaction was significant, suggesting the positive role of ethnic identity in adolescent well-being (Piña-Watson et al., 2013, 2017; Romero et al., 2014). In this model, the moderation effect was not significant; it is possible that the effect of ethnic identity is contextualized in specific ethnic groups and may work differently across ethnic groups. Thus, the combined sample might not detect the moderation effect.

The moderation effect was further tested in the double moderator model with ethnic identity and ethnicity as separate moderators using two ethnic groups (European Americans and African Americans). Results showed that both ethnic identity and ethnicity moderated the negative effect of peer stress on life satisfaction, suggesting that these two variables need to be considered at the same time when analyzing how they might work to affect adolescents’ life satisfaction under peer stress (in contrast to Model 1 results). Moreover, the conditional analysis revealed that the association between peer stress and life satisfaction was stronger for African Americans than European American adolescents. The buffering effect of ethnic identity was evident for both ethnic groups. Taken together, though, it appeared that African American adolescents’ life satisfaction was more subject to the influence from peer stress. Meanwhile, their ethnic identity has a more protective effect when they cope with peer stress. This might especially apply to adolescents’ experiences in a diverse social environment, like the school where the sample was drawn that has diverse ethnic composition and allows frequent student interactions across ethnic groups.

Three moderated moderation analyses were conducted to further test the significant moderating effects of ethnic identity and ethnicity that might explain how these two variables work in the relation between adolescent stressors and life satisfaction. Ethnicity significantly moderated the relation between peer stress and life satisfaction, with a weaker relation between these two variables for European American adolescents compared to African American adolescents. None of the other interaction effects were significant in the model, including the interaction between peer stress and ethnic identity and the three-way interaction between peer stress, ethnic identity and ethnicity. Thus, integrating the results from all moderation models, ethnic identity has the significant protective effect in the context of peer stress, for both African American and European American adolescents (i.e., moderation effect of ethnic identity); and the effect of peer stress on life satisfaction differs significantly across African American and European American participants (i.e., moderation effect of ethnicity). However, these two moderators appear to work independently, rather than interact with each other and the peer stressor (i.e., the moderated moderation was not found). They also need to be considered at the same time, instead of having ethnic identity work alone as the moderator (i.e., the single moderation was not significant).

Taken together, the present finding highlighted the protective function of social identity for African American adolescents in a diverse peer setting, supporting the importance of the peer context in social identity development for minorized youth (Tarrant, 2002; Tarrant et al., 2001). Based on minoritized youth development literature, minority groups tend to experience more ethnicity related stressors, and ethnic identity is more emphasized in the socialization process in minority families (Hughes & DuMont, 1993; Hughes et al., 2006). Thus, a strong ethnic identity could be an important component in minoritized youth’s acquisition of coping skills or part of their identity development that is reinforced in the process of coping with ethnicity related stress. Findings from the present study suggested that the protective role of ethnic identity can be generalized to the context of peer stress. It may be that adolescents not only develop their ethnic identity as part of social identity from peer interactions (social identity theory, Tajfel, 1982), but also have ethnic identity as part of their internal resources to cope with stress stemmed from peer relations. The ethnic identity development is likely a dynamic, interweaving process embedded in peer relations and peer stress. Overall, the findings of this study speak to the more substantial protective function of ethnic identity development for minoritized youth and shed light on practices (e.g., in family, community, and school settings) that foster healthy ethnic identity.

Limitations and Future Directions

First, a convenient sample of adolescents from an urban, public high school was used, which might not represent adolescents in other geographic regions, like rural or suburban communities or other settings. Second, the current study solely includes cross-sectional data, which hindered the ability to assess changes in ethnic identity development over time concerning life satisfaction. Future research should consider including more data points that may help detect the protective effect of ethnic identity over time. Third, peer stress measured in this study did not differentiate in-group versus out-group stress, and thus we were not able to test the effects of different sources of peer stress. Lastly, Asian American and Latinx groups were not included in the moderation analyses due to small sample sizes. Future studies with a higher concentration of adolescents across various ethnic groups are needed to replicate or extend the current findings.

Implications

While still preliminary in nature, the results of the current study emphasized the importance of fostering adolescents’ ethnic identity, especially given its buffering effect against peer stress to protect life satisfaction. Such knowledge can help psychologists, educators, and other professionals consider factors contributing to adolescent well-being during direct intervention and treatment planning. For example, an intervention program called Identity Project (Umaña-Taylor, 2018; Umaña-Taylor et al., 2018) has showed the long-term benefits of allowing adolescents to explore their backgrounds. Specifically, the program participants gained a sense of clarity about their ethnic-racial identity. They reported lower depressive symptoms, higher self-esteem, better grades, and a higher sense of global identity (Umaña-Taylor et al., 2018). Ethnic identity can be an important topic in group counseling interventions. One qualitative study with Mexican-origin youth has suggested participants perceived group participation as meaningful, and they learned the importance of the relationship to bring about change, growth in several aspects of ethnic identity (knowledge of culture, traits, and ethnic pride), and increased relational skills (Malott et al., 2010). Ethnic identity also can be facilitated through school-based interventions. For instance, through an 8-week culturally responsive school intervention called “cuento (story) group work,” Zamora and colleagues (2019) indicated an increase in racial and ethnic identity in Latino youth. Besides direct intervention, the current study’s findings can be used as a guide to aid in consultation with teachers and school personnel regarding the effects of ethnic identity and adolescent stress on life satisfaction. Psychologists can also work with school personnel to develop additional Tier 1 interventions (e.g., positive school climate) that promote healthy ethnic identity development in adolescence. Lastly, researchers should collaborate with community personnel from various ethnic backgrounds and positions to establish programming that helps parents and families understand the relations and importance of ethnic identity, mental health, and well-being outcomes.