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Biomarkers from Secondary Complications in Spinal Cord Injury

  • Neuropharmacology (G Aston-Jones, Section Editor)
  • Published:
Current Pharmacology Reports Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Purpose of Review

In the USA, spinal cord injury (SCI) occurs in 40 people per million every year due to events such as car accidents, falls, violence, or sports injury. Secondary complications that arise from SCI are life-threatening and should be treated as early as possible. In some cases, it is not completely obvious what complication a patient may have until it is too late. Therefore, biomarkers are required to assess the levels of secondary complications after SCI. As there are several complications that pose different warning signs, different biomarkers may be beneficial in early detection, maintenance, and long-term care for patients with SCI.

Recent Findings

Numerous studies have been conducted on biomarkers in various SCI and its related complications, such as neuropathic pain and deep vein thrombosis. In recent years, research has expanded with biomarkers discovered by cellular and molecular, genome-wide transcriptomic analysis, bioinformatics, and clinical studies. Biomarkers have allowed early prediction of the severity of secondary complications due to SCI.

Summary

In this review, we summarize recent studies on the common biomarkers for the secondary complications related to SCI. We highlight the reliable biomarkers that have been tested, e.g., sclerostin, NGF, D-dimer, oncostatin M (OSM), microbiota, and C-reactive protein, which are valuable and with clinical importance. This review also emphasizes continuing research in biomarkers as they can provide valuable cellular and molecular insight into secondary complications after SCI.

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Abbreviations

AD:

Autonomic dysreflexia

BDNF:

Drain-derived neurotrophic factor

CNS:

Central nervous system

CRP:

C-reactive protein

CTX:

Carboxy terminal collagen

DVT:

Deep vein thrombosis

GF:

Growth factors

GM-CSF:

Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor

IL-6:

Interleukin-6

NP:

Neuropathic pain

lncRNAs:

Long non-coding RNAs

NBD:

Neurogenic Bowel Dysfunction

NF:

Neurotrophic factors

NGF:

Nerve growth factor

NHO:

Neurogenic heterotopic ossification

OSM:

Oncostatin M

OSMR:

OSM receptor

PAI-1:

Plasminogen activator Inhibitor 1

RANKL:

Receptor activator of nuclear factor kB ligand

ROS:

Reactive oxygen species

SCI:

Spinal cord injury

SP:

Substance P

TLR:

Toll-like receptors

TNF-a:

Tumor necrosis factor-α

UTD:

Urinary tract dysfunction

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Papers of particular interest, published recently, have been highlighted as: • Of importance •• Of major importance

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Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the members of the Cai lab for the discussion.

Funding

This research was supported by NIH grant P30CA072720, the Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, and the New Jersey Commission on Spinal Cord Research, grant number 15IRG006.

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  1. Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rutgers University, 599 Taylor Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA

    Hani Alostaz & Li Cai

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Table 1 Biomarkers present in secondary complications of spinal cord injury
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Alostaz, H., Cai, L. Biomarkers from Secondary Complications in Spinal Cord Injury. Curr Pharmacol Rep 8, 20–30 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40495-021-00268-3

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