1 Introduction

Disasters are unpredictable and have severe and widespread impacts on communities and environments, necessitating swift and effective responses. Disaster management systems, which orchestrate these responses, need to be well-coordinated, versatile, and adept at confronting a wide range of hazards and the threats they pose. In this realm, interoperability defined as the capacity for diverse systems and organizations to collaborate harmoniously is a vital ingredient for success. Interoperability fosters a symbiotic relationship between agencies, promoting a holistic and unified approach to disaster management (Chatfield and AlAnazi 2015). As the number of those affected by disaster and humanitarian events continues to escalate worldwide, the importance of interoperability has become increasingly clear across numerous applications. These include advanced communication systems, bio surveillance, and informatics that play a critical role in disaster management (Weiner and Slepski 2012). Over the past two decades, there has been an intensified focus on the quality of response and readiness of health workers, a trend that parallels the rise in natural hazard-related disasters, conflicts, and the subsequent necessity for health workers to function across borders (Gebbie et al. 2012).

While global trends in disaster management have been extensively studied, the health implications of disasters in Saudi Arabia have received particular attention in recent research. Studies have indicated that natural hazards and disasters like floods can lead to outbreaks of waterborne diseases, while industrial accidents might expose populations to hazardous chemicals with long-term health consequences (Mani and Goniewicz 2023a). Additionally, the mass gatherings during religious events in places like Mecca pose unique health challenges, which are exacerbated in the aftermath of a disaster (Al-Wathinani, Alakeel, et al. 2021; Al-Wathinani, Hertelendy, et al. 2021). Addressing these health concerns requires an in-depth understanding of the local context, cultural nuances, and the capacity of the health system to respond to such emergencies.

Saudi Arabia has recorded a number of natural hazard-related and anthropogenic disasters such as earthquakes and flooding, to industrial mishaps (Al Thobaity et al. 2015; Sultan et al. 2020). Floods are the most common natural occurrence due to unplanned urban expansion, poor drainage, or the low terrain in some densely populated places, like Jeddah and Mecca, which are bordered by mountains and are susceptible to floods from rainfall (GFDRR 2023).

Furthermore, the health implications of these disasters in Saudi Arabia cannot be understated. Recent health studies have highlighted the increased risk of respiratory diseases post sandstorms and the psychological trauma associated with witnessing or being a victim of an anthropogenic disaster (Meo et al. 2013; Samarkandi et al. 2017). The health system’s readiness to address these challenges, both in terms of infrastructure and human resources, plays a pivotal role in disaster management.

This vulnerability of a disaster management system accentuates the country’s need for a robust, interoperable disaster management framework. Substantial strides have been made in recent years to bolster Saudi Arabia’s disaster preparedness and resilience, particularly with respect to enhancing the interoperability of various disaster management systems (Sultan 2018). These endeavors encompassed an array of stakeholders, including governmental bodies, nongovernmental organizations, and the private sector, reflecting the multifaceted nature of disaster management.

Yet, Saudi Arabia’s challenges are not insular. The pursuit of disaster management interoperability is a global endeavor, and many countries grapple with similar obstacles. Insights gleaned from international best practices and lessons learned provide a valuable resource for understanding the challenges and opportunities facing Saudi Arabia. A multitude of countries have invested heavily in the creation of integrated, interoperable disaster management systems, leveraging innovative strategies to improve their preparedness, planning, response, recovery, and resilience (Al-Wathinani, Alakeel, et al. 2021; Al-Wathinani, Hertelendy, et al. 2021).

This article reports on an exhaustive exploration of the evidence on current trends and challenges related to disaster management in Saudi Arabia. By conducting a rapid review of existing literature, we seek to elucidate the efforts to boost the interoperability of disaster management systems in Saudi Arabia, elucidate the critical factors and best practices to consider in future endeavors, and shed light on key trends. Our objective is not merely to deliver an informative resource for those engaged in the field of disaster management in Saudi Arabia but to contribute to the formation of a society that is more prepared and resilient in the face of potential disasters (Alyami et al. 2020).

2 Materials and Methods

Building upon the contextual foundation laid in the previous section, this study embarked on a meticulous journey to navigate the intricate landscape of interoperability in disaster management within Saudi Arabia. Recognizing the complexity and multifaceted nature of this field, our research methodology was crafted to mirror the depth and breadth required for such an investigation. In this section, we delve into the intricate process of our literature search, a pivotal step in synthesizing current trends and challenges. Grounded in the Rapid Evidence Assessment (REA) model, our approach amalgamates systematic and non-systematic literature reviews. This dual approach is not only reflective of our commitment to comprehensive analysis but also indicative of our dedication to capturing the most relevant and recent contributions in this evolving domain. The following subsections detail our rigorous literature search strategy, encompassing a wide array of databases and manual sources, all meticulously chosen to ensure a robust and inclusive review of the pertinent literature.

2.1 Literature Search

The methodology of this research adapts from the Rapid Evidence Assessment (REA) model (Shimpo 2020). The REA, a hybrid approach incorporating systematic and non-systematic literature reviews, was customized in our case to concentrate on a comprehensive search across multiple databases and manual sources, enabling us to highlight crucial contemporary research contributions (Sun et al. 2020). The literature search cast a wide net across several electronic databases including, but not limited to, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science, and we further complemented this approach by manually searching government reports, theses, and conference proceedings. To maintain language consistency and to reflect recent developments in the field, we restricted our search to English-language literature published between 2015 and 2023.

2.2 Study Selection

Our selection process was rigorous and systematically aligned with the central theme: interoperability in disaster management in Saudi Arabia. Articles directly addressing this topic in the title or abstract were included, ensuring that our selection provided a significant insight into our research area. While we excluded reviews, conference proceedings, editorials, meeting notes, and news items to focus on original research articles, we maintained a commitment to consider articles presenting solid empirical data or innovative conceptual arguments. Records were excluded based on their irrelevance to the topic, and reasons for exclusions are provided in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Flow diagram of literature selection process

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2.3 Data Extraction

Following the selection process, we initiated systematic data extraction from the literature that met our inclusion criteria. We extracted crucial information from each article, including authors, publication year, research method, key findings, country of focus, participant types, and disaster type. Additionally, our focus extended to the evaluation of the usage of communication technologies and networks in disaster management, as well as the examination of relevant data repositories. An example of such a repository is the Global Public Health Intelligence Network of the World Health Organization Global Outbreak Alert and Response Network (Thomas et al. 2011).

2.4 Content Analysis

Post data extraction, we conducted an inclusive content analysis, processing both qualitative and quantitative data gathered from the selected literature. The aim was to identify patterns, disparities, and emerging themes. The analysis method was designed to account for all types of studies, and the inclusion or exclusion of quantitative studies merely reflects the nature of the available literature on the topic, not a predefined restriction.

2.5 Data Synthesis

The extracted and analyzed data were subsequently synthesized to construct an overall understanding of the status of interoperability in disaster management in Saudi Arabia. The synthesis aimed to identify critical challenges and potential areas of improvement in disaster management strategies.

2.6 Automation Tools

Automation tools played a critical role in managing the vast array of data generated during the review process. We used Rayyan, a web-based software platform that streamlines the production of systematic reviews (Ouzzani et al. 2016). It facilitated the screening of titles and abstracts, full-text review, risk of bias assessment, and data extraction, ensuring consistency and accuracy throughout the review process.

The structured, multi-step approach we adopted, complete with literature search, study selection, data extraction, qualitative content analysis, and data synthesis, formed the backbone of our comprehensive understanding of interoperability in disaster management in Saudi Arabia. As displayed in Fig. 1, each phase of the process served to filter and refine the collected information, ultimately resulting in a robust analysis underpinning the study’s conclusions.

3 Results

Our analysis included a total of 42 studies, which were systematically categorized and subjected to qualitative assessment. The application of content analysis allowed us to identify key topics related to interoperability in disaster management in Saudi Arabia. The following topics were identified and are discussed in detail in the subsequent sections of this article: Interoperability challenges and barriers in disaster management in Saudi Arabia, the current state of disaster management infrastructure and technology, the role of international organizations and cooperation, the effectiveness of current disaster management practices and procedures, the role of community preparedness and engagement, and the potential impact of new and emerging technologies on interoperability in disaster management.

3.1 Interoperability Challenges and Barriers in Disaster Management

Analyzing interoperability barriers within the context of Saudi Arabia’s disaster management framework necessitates a deep dive into the prevailing practices and the potential avenues for optimization. A robust disaster management system requires seamless collaboration and communication between various stakeholders, including government agencies, nongovernmental organizations, and local communities. To respond effectively to disasters, these entities need to align their efforts, consolidate resources, and share information in real-time (Varker et al. 2015).

However, the realization of this synergy often encounters substantial impediments. One of the major obstacles is the current state of disaster management infrastructure in the country. Despite significant investments, the infrastructure often proves to be inadequate or ill-equipped during disasters. For instance, there may be insufficient emergency response facilities, inadequately equipped hospitals, or even a lack of necessary support structures to provide care for displaced victims or distribute essential supplies. These inadequacies can hinder the prompt delivery of services, thereby aggravating the overall situation during disasters (Djafri and Gafour 2022).

Another significant barrier arises from technological constraints. In today’s world, technology plays a crucial role in managing disasters effectively. Advanced technologies, such as Geographic Information Systems (GIS), satellite imagery, real-time data analysis tools, and communication technologies, can significantly enhance disaster management efforts. However, the lack of such technologies or challenges in utilizing them can pose significant challenges. It is important to address these technological gaps and ensure the availability and optimal use of technology in disaster management (Djafri and Gafour 2022).

The absence of standardized procedures across different stakeholders is another prominent challenge. Different organizations and agencies often have varying protocols and procedures for disaster management, making it challenging to synchronize their efforts. This lack of uniformity can lead to confusion, miscommunication, and delays in response, further escalating the impacts of a disaster. Standardizing procedures and protocols across all involved stakeholders is vital to ensure smooth coordination and effective response (Djafri and Gafour 2022).

Inefficiencies, delays, and communication gaps caused by these challenges can exacerbate disaster impacts. Disjointed efforts can lead to duplicated work, inefficient resource utilization, and missed opportunities to mitigate damage. These issues underscore the importance of addressing interoperability challenges in disaster management. Without effective coordination and interoperability, the best-intentioned disaster response efforts can fall short, leading to unnecessary loss and suffering (Da Silva Avanzi et al. 2017).

Addressing these interoperability challenges is not a simple task; it calls for a multifaceted approach that encompasses a comprehensive review of the current disaster management procedures in Saudi Arabia. This review should aim to identify shortcomings, analyze their root causes, and propose solutions tailored to the unique context of the country. It will be important to look at the role of international organizations and how they can bring best practices and support to the country’s disaster management efforts. It will also be crucial to delve into the concept of community readiness, which is pivotal in enhancing the country’s resilience and reducing its vulnerability to disasters (Da Silva Avanzi et al. 2017).

While the task of addressing interoperability challenges in disaster management is complex, it is not insurmountable. Through systematic analysis, continued investment, and persistent efforts, it is possible to overcome these barriers, optimize disaster management procedures, and enhance the efficacy of disaster response in Saudi Arabia. This endeavor is not only important from a humanitarian perspective but is also crucial to ensure the socioeconomic stability and sustainable development of the country in the face of potential disasters.

3.2 The Current State of Disaster Management Infrastructure and Technology

The effectiveness of disaster management largely hinges on the robustness of the underlying infrastructure and the sophistication of the supporting technology. Infrastructure and technology in this context are wide-ranging, encompassing physical facilities like emergency shelters and hospitals, communication networks, transport systems, information management systems, and specialized tools and equipment for rescue and recovery operations. In Saudi Arabia, considerable effort has been put into establishing and upgrading these critical components. However, guaranteeing their efficiency, effectiveness, and dependability is an ongoing endeavor (Borowska-Stefańska et al. 2022).

Starting with physical infrastructure, Saudi Arabia has made substantial strides in the development of emergency response facilities. These include medical facilities, emergency shelters, command and control centers, and evacuation routes. Still, these facilities need continuous improvement to keep up with the evolving nature of disasters and the increasing population density in urban areas. Aspects such as accessibility, capacity, resilience to hazards, and the availability of necessary utilities and services in these facilities need constant attention and improvement (Chiu 2019).

Communication infrastructure forms another critical component of disaster management. Effective and timely communication can greatly enhance the coordination of disaster response efforts. In Saudi Arabia, the communication infrastructure includes various channels like radio, television, mobile networks, and the Internet. However, the resilience of these networks in the face of disasters is a matter of concern. Disruptions in communication networks during disasters can hinder the coordination of planning, preparedness, response, and recovery efforts and the dissemination of crucial information to the public. Hence, enhancing the resilience of communication networks and exploring alternative communication methods for disaster scenarios in all phases is an area requiring further attention (Al-Wathinani, Alakeel, et al. 2021; Al-Wathinani, Hertelendy, et al. 2021).

Transportation infrastructure is another critical aspect that can make a significant difference in disaster response efforts. Efficient transportation systems are necessary for the quick mobilization of emergency responders, the evacuation of affected people, and the distribution of relief materials. While Saudi Arabia has a relatively well-developed transportation infrastructure, its effectiveness during disasters depends on factors such as the preparedness of the systems, the state of maintenance, and the availability of alternate routes in case of disruptions. Enhancing the resilience and preparedness of the transportation infrastructure for disaster is another area of focus (Goniewicz and Goniewicz 2020).

In terms of technology, Saudi Arabia has adopted various modern tools and systems to support disaster management efforts. These include systems for data collection and management, early warning systems, decision support systems, and communication technologies. However, technologies like artificial intelligence, machine learning, remote sensing, and big data analytics need to be continuously upgraded to incorporate advancements, new applications, and the influence of new roles, relationships, and events. These advanced technologies can significantly enhance the prediction, monitoring, decision support, and management of disasters (Goniewicz, Carlström, et al. 2021).

While the integration of these technologies is promising, there are associated challenges. These include issues related to data privacy and security, the need for technical expertise to handle these technologies, and the need for standardization to ensure interoperability. Addressing these challenges is important to fully harness the potential of these technologies for disaster management (Goniewicz, Goniewicz, et al. 2021).

The current state of disaster management infrastructure and technology in Saudi Arabia presents a mixed picture. While there have been significant advancements, challenges persist. Continued investment in infrastructure development, technological upgradation, and capacity building are crucial for enhancing the country’s disaster management capabilities.

3.3 The Role of International Organizations and Cooperation in Disaster Management

The efficacy of disaster management strategies is often a function of strong international cooperation and the support of global organizations, particularly for countries like Saudi Arabia that are vulnerable to a diverse array of hazards (Al-Wathinani et al. 2023). Therefore, building robust alliances with international entities and fostering an environment of effective cooperation is integral to the nation’s disaster management efforts.

International organizations offer an avenue for knowledge transfer and sharing of best practices, particularly in the context of disaster management. Such organizations, including but not limited to, the United Nations (UN), the World Health Organization (WHO), the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC), and the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR), provide a wealth of resources and experience (Al-Wathinani et al. 2020). By tapping into these global networks, Saudi Arabia can leverage the latest advancements in disaster management technology, the most effective strategies and methodologies, and utilize these insights to inform and enhance their own disaster management infrastructure.

The UN, for instance, provides a platform for its member states to share experiences and learn from each other’s successes and failures in disaster management. Through its various agencies and programs such as the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), the former United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR), and the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR), it offers technical guidance, resources, and training to build resilience and improve disaster response capabilities (Izumi and Shaw 2012; Sultan et al. 2023; Wen et al. 2023).

Similarly, the WHO offers expertise in public health aspects of disaster management, providing guidance on emergency medical response, disease outbreak management, and healthcare infrastructure strengthening, among others. Collaborations with the WHO can greatly enhance Saudi Arabia’s capacity to manage public health emergencies during disasters (Aitsi-Selmi 2015).

Additionally, the IFRC plays a crucial role in supporting national Red Cross and Red Crescent societies, like the Saudi Red Crescent Authority, through capacity-building programs, provision of resources, and coordination of international aid during large-scale disasters. Such assistance is vital for enhancing the community-level response capabilities, which form the first line of response during emergencies (Algahtani et al. 2021).

Moreover, these international collaborations not only provide access to resources and knowledge but also create opportunities for Saudi Arabia to contribute to global disaster management initiatives, sharing their unique experiences and solutions, and thus fostering a mutual exchange of learning (Mobrad et al. 2022).

Beyond the engagement with international organizations, the importance of regional cooperation for disaster management cannot be understated. Given the shared geographic and climatic characteristics among countries in the Middle East, collaboration on disaster management strategies is particularly beneficial. Sharing data and experiences can lead to more effective regional early warning systems, harmonized response protocols, and more efficient utilization of resources during emergencies (Germain and McGuire 2022).

International organizations and cooperation play an indispensable role in enhancing Saudi Arabia’s disaster management capacities. By actively participating in these global and regional collaborations, Saudi Arabia can not only improve its preparedness and response capabilities but also contribute to global efforts towards creating a safer and more resilient world (Germain and McGuire 2022).

3.4 The Effectiveness of Current Disaster Management Practices and Procedures

As Saudi Arabia continues to make strides in disaster management, it is critical to assess the impact and effectiveness of existing strategies, protocols, and interventions. These evaluations serve as a lens through which the robustness of the disaster management framework can be understood, and potential improvements can be identified (Burkle et al. 2023). Consequently, this section provides an in-depth exploration of the nation’s current disaster management practices, taking into account the response frameworks, protocols, and the contributions of key stakeholders in the disaster management landscape.

In terms of disaster response frameworks, Saudi Arabia has adopted a multi-agency approach, characterized by collaboration and coordination among various government agencies, nongovernmental organizations, and local communities. The Saudi Arabian National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) oversees and coordinates these efforts, employing a system of emergency management that includes preparedness, response, recovery, and mitigation phases (Al-Mamary 2022a). The effectiveness of this system is evaluated based on its efficiency, timeliness, and success in reducing the impact of disasters. For instance, the timeliness of response, the adequacy of resources deployed, and the effectiveness of communication among different agencies during an emergency are crucial indicators of effectiveness (Al-Mamary 2022b).

Stakeholder performance also significantly impacts the overall effectiveness of disaster management practices. Organizations such as the NDMA, the Ministry of Health, and the Saudi Red Crescent Authority, among others, play integral roles in disaster response and their performance influences the outcome of these interventions. Effectiveness in this context might be measured by the ability of these organizations to fulfill their disaster management roles and responsibilities, their level of cooperation with other agencies, and their capacity to adapt to changing circumstances during disasters (Al Ali et al. 2022).

Despite the implementation of these measures, there exist potential areas for improvement. For instance, while the multi-agency approach promotes collaboration, there may still be gaps in coordination, resulting in delayed or ineffective responses. Similarly, although the existing protocols may serve as a general guide for disaster response, they may not be comprehensive enough to cater to all types of disasters or cover all potential scenarios (Bajow et al. 2019).

Moreover, the disaster management practices and procedures in place might be more reactive than proactive, focusing more on response and recovery rather than on risk reduction and prevention. Transitioning towards a more proactive approach, focused on disaster risk reduction, could enhance the overall effectiveness of disaster management efforts (Alzahrani and Al-Moteri 2022).

In essence, this section aims to dissect the nuances of Saudi Arabia’s current disaster management framework, highlighting the areas of effectiveness and identifying opportunities for further enhancement. This rigorous examination should pave the way for a more resilient and responsive disaster management system, ultimately safeguarding the people and resources of Saudi Arabia more effectively in the face of disasters.

3.5 The Role of Community Preparedness and Engagement in Disaster Management

The cornerstone of an effective disaster management strategy lies in the preparedness and engagement of communities (Al Kurdi 2021). Recognizing the unique insights, resources, and capabilities that communities bring to disaster management, a significant emphasis is placed on enhancing their disaster preparedness and increasing their active participation in disaster management efforts.

Community preparedness pertains to the proactive measures taken by individuals and communities to prepare for potential disasters. These activities typically include the formulation of emergency response plans, participation in disaster preparedness training programs, stocking up on necessary supplies, and establishing resilient infrastructure and systems at the community level (Aziri and Miralam 2021). Additionally, the development of community-based organizations focused on disaster management is a crucial aspect of preparedness. These organizations often serve as a vital link between individual community members and broader disaster management initiatives (Tambo et al. 2021).

Community engagement, on the other hand, entails the involvement of communities in disaster management decision-making processes. This can range from incorporating community perspectives in the development of disaster management strategies to engaging community members in the execution of these plans. Community engagement is an invaluable component of disaster management as it ensures that the strategies and interventions developed are context-specific, culturally appropriate, and widely accepted by the community members (Ahern and Loh 2021).

Saudi Arabia has demonstrated its commitment to promoting community preparedness and engagement by initiating several programs and measures. For instance, the Saudi National Disaster Management Authority has developed training and education programs aimed at enhancing community resilience. These programs educate community members about potential hazards, emergency response procedures, and safety measures to take during disasters (Al-Mamary 2022b).

Similarly, the Saudi Red Crescent Authority organizes regular drills and simulations at the community level to ensure community members are well-equipped to respond effectively to emergencies. These drills not only help in improving preparedness but also foster a culture of community participation and collaboration in disaster management (Magrabi 2012).

Saudi Arabia has undertaken measures to create platforms for community engagement, where community members can voice their concerns, provide feedback, and actively contribute to disaster management strategies (Saudi Red Crescent Authority 2023). Such participatory approaches ensure that disaster management strategies are tailored to the needs of the community and hence, are more likely to be successful.

While the steps taken towards community preparedness and engagement are commendable, further efforts can be made to integrate these aspects more comprehensively into the broader disaster management framework. Greater emphasis can be placed on involving communities in all stages of disaster management—from risk assessment and planning to response and recovery (Aladsani 2022).

Community preparedness and engagement play a critical role in disaster management. The experiences and insights from Saudi Arabia can offer valuable lessons for other countries aiming to enhance their own community-based disaster management efforts.

3.6 The Potential Impact of New and Emerging Technologies

The relentless pace of technological innovation is revolutionizing the field of disaster management. The advent of advanced technologies, including but not limited to, artificial intelligence (AI), Internet of Things (IoT), drones, big data, and blockchain, promise to bring about unprecedented changes to the ways in which disasters are predicted, managed, and mitigated (Hassounah 2020).

Artificial intelligence, with its ability to analyze vast amounts of data in real-time, holds the potential to improve disaster prediction, response, and recovery. Machine learning algorithms can sift through meteorological data to predict natural hazards and disasters more accurately, allowing for early warnings and preparations. Artificial intelligence can also assist in the response phase by coordinating resources, prioritizing tasks, and identifying the most affected areas needing immediate attention, thereby increasing the efficiency of disaster management operations (Poulin and Kane 2021).

Internet of Things, a network of interconnected devices, can significantly enhance communication and coordination during disasters. For instance, IoT-enabled sensors can monitor environmental parameters continuously, alerting relevant authorities about potential hazards in real-time for the protection of the environment in addition to the population. In the event of a disaster, IoT devices can help locate survivors, track resources, and monitor the progress of disaster response operations, thus improving situational awareness (Lu 2014).

Drones and satellite technology are other emerging technologies that have the potential to drastically improve disaster management. These technologies can provide high-resolution aerial images, enabling real-time damage assessments and aiding in search and rescue operations. Moreover, drones can be used to deliver emergency supplies to inaccessible or dangerous areas, increasing the effectiveness of disaster response (Tomas et al. 2015).

The blockchain technology, though typically associated with finance and cryptocurrency, can also have significant implications for disaster management. It can provide a secure, transparent, and tamper-proof platform for transactions during disaster response, ensuring that aid reaches the intended recipients (Shi and Fapojuwo 2010).

Despite the enormous potential, the adoption of these technologies in disaster management also poses certain challenges. Data privacy and security are significant concerns, especially when dealing with personal and sensitive information. Ensuring the ethical use of AI and other technologies, while also preserving the privacy and security of individuals, is a critical consideration (Noran 2014).

Furthermore, the use of these technologies necessitates standardized protocols to ensure interoperability across different systems and devices. The absence of such standards can lead to a lack of coordination, delayed responses, and other operational inefficiencies (Shi and Fapojuwo 2010; Noran 2014; Shah 2018; Golpîra 2021).

The successful implementation of these technologies requires substantial investments in infrastructure, software, and hardware, as well as continuous maintenance and upgrades. It also requires extensive training for emergency responders and the general public, to enable them to effectively use and respond to these technologies (Rathore et al. 2016; Oppenheim et al. 2019).

New and emerging technologies hold significant promise for revolutionizing disaster management in Saudi Arabia and beyond. However, it is essential to carefully navigate the challenges and concerns associated with their use, ensuring that these technologies are used ethically, responsibly, and effectively in the service of humanity.

4 Discussion

As this review has found, the orchestration of effective disaster management is a complex, multifaceted process requiring strategic coordination among diverse sectors and stakeholders. Saudi Arabia, with its dynamic landscape, continually evolves its practices in response to advancements in technology, infrastructure, and regulation (Oppenheim et al. 2019). To tackle the complexities inherent in disaster management, a comprehensive understanding of current practices and procedures, as well as the role of international organizations and cooperation, is paramount (Al-Mamary 2022a, 2022b). Central to the challenges identified in our analysis is the need to enhance interoperability among the diverse organizations and systems that contribute to disaster management (Alrubaiq and Alharbi 2021). Lack of interoperability can lead to communication gaps, inefficient resource allocation, and coordination issues (El-Sofany 2012). Addressing these challenges is crucial, necessitating the formulation and execution of effective strategies geared toward strengthening interoperability within the realm of disaster management (Oppenheim et al. 2019).

International organizations and cooperation, as observed in our findings, play a significant role in disaster management in Saudi Arabia. Collaborative efforts such as the sharing of best practices, development of standards and guidelines for disaster management, and the exchange of resources and information can substantially boost disaster management effectiveness (Al-Zahrani 2006). The importance of critically assessing the effectiveness of existing disaster management practices and procedures emerged prominently in our analysis (Rodríguez-Espíndola 2018). Such assessments can help identify areas requiring improvement, including a detailed examination of current disaster management plans and the performance of recent disaster response and recovery efforts (Khorram-Manesh et al. 2021). A commitment to continuous improvement is integral to heightening Saudi Arabia’s preparedness for future disasters, optimizing the resource consumption and minimizing their negative community impacts.

Our review further highlights the importance of community preparedness and engagement in disaster management. Empowering communities to prepare and respond to disasters can help lessen disaster impacts and foster overall resilience (Goniewicz, Goniewicz, et al. 2021). Strategies can encompass the development of community-based disaster response plans and the provision of resources and training to support such preparedness initiatives. We have also underscored the transformative potential of new and emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence and the Internet of Things in revolutionizing disaster management. Nevertheless, it is crucial to acknowledge and address challenges associated with the adoption of these technologies, including data privacy, security issues, and the need for standardized protocols to ensure interoperability (Gil‐Rivas and Kilmer 2016). Moreover, the critical role of community engagement and preparedness in disaster management cannot be overstated (Gupta and Quamara 2020). Communities that are better prepared and engaged are known to be more resilient to disasters. This entails not only developing community-based disaster response plans and providing necessary resources for preparedness but also nurturing a culture of disaster risk awareness and reduction in communities. Therefore, strategies for enhancing community preparedness and engagement should be woven into the fabric of the broader disaster management framework.

Our review advocates for a comprehensive, integrated approach to effective disaster management in Saudi Arabia. Such an approach necessitates cognizance of the opportunities and challenges posed by emerging technologies, as well as an acknowledgment of the importance of international cooperation, community preparedness and engagement, and the continual refinement of existing disaster management practices and procedures. As we move deeper into the twenty-first century, the dynamics of disaster management are in constant flux due to a variety of factors, including technological innovation, changing patterns of hazards, societal transformations, and the increasing complexity of modern societies (Berreman and Guest 2022). Therefore, the realm of disaster management requires continual adaptation and flexibility in response to these evolving trends. Advancements in technologies, especially AI and IoT, have revolutionized various sectors, and importantly disaster management (Zeinab and Elmustafa 2017). The use of these technologies can significantly augment the efficiency of disaster management efforts, offering real-time data analysis, enhancing communication and coordination, and aiding in the quick and effective deployment of resources. These tools, when used effectively, can aid in providing timely alerts, managing resources, and even predicting disaster patterns. Yet, the integration of these cutting-edge technologies is not without challenges. Concerns over data privacy and security, the need for standardization, and the potential digital divide between communities need to be addressed diligently to ensure the equitable and safe application of these technologies in disaster management (Metke and Ekl 2010).

In the context of global disaster management, international cooperation has emerged as a pivotal factor in enhancing capabilities and resilience. By actively engaging in international cooperation, countries can share and learn from best practices, exchange crucial data, and collaborate on research and development initiatives. For Saudi Arabia, this can mean tapping into a global reservoir of expertise and resources. The sharing of best practices, in particular, offers a pathway to learn from successful disaster management strategies implemented in different geopolitical contexts (Janssen and Van der Voort 2020; Aruru et al. 2021). Furthermore, collaboration with international organizations can provide Saudi Arabia access to standardized protocols, guidelines, and frameworks that have been developed after rigorous testing and validation in varied settings. This can significantly enhance the effectiveness of local disaster management initiatives. Moreover, international cooperation fosters a sense of solidarity among nations, emphasizing the idea that disasters are a shared concern that transcend borders. It is worth noting that the challenges faced by one nation can offer lessons for others, especially in a globalized world where the impacts of disasters can ripple across continents. Therefore, for Saudi Arabia, establishing strong collaborative ties with international entities can be instrumental in advancing its disaster management capabilities, adapting global best practices to local conditions, and contributing to the global body of knowledge on effective disaster management (Rodriguez et al. 2021; Mani and Goniewicz 2023a, 2023b).

Lastly, it is essential to acknowledge the importance of continuously evaluating and refining current disaster management practices and procedures (Travers et al. 2022). In a rapidly changing world, disaster management strategies that worked in the past may not necessarily be effective in the future (Rivera and Knox 2022). Hence, it is crucial to maintain a dynamic approach to disaster management, which involves regular monitoring, evaluation, and refinement of strategies in line with evolving trends and needs.

5 Limitations

While our study offers valuable insights into the current state of disaster management in Saudi Arabia, it is important to recognize its limitations. The methodology was reliant on a rapid review of available literature, introducing several potential limitations that should be taken into account when interpreting the results.

First, our analysis was conducted on a limited selection of articles retrieved from online databases. While our methodology aimed at a comprehensive review, the vast realm of disaster management literature implies that we may have inadvertently overlooked certain critical articles, potentially limiting the depth of our understanding of disaster management in Saudi Arabia.

Second, a language bias must be acknowledged. Our review focused exclusively on English-language studies, potentially omitting pertinent research published in other languages. This bias may restrict the breadth and generalizability of our findings and potentially overlook key regional insights present in non-English literature.

Third, no formal quality appraisal of the included studies was undertaken. While this decision streamlined our review process, future research could benefit from implementing quality checks using frameworks such as the Critical Appraisal Skills Program (CASP) or the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) checklist. Such an assessment could provide an additional layer of validation to the review process.

Lastly, the possibility of selection bias exists. Although a meticulous methodology was used to minimize this bias, the ultimate determination of inclusion and exclusion criteria was based on a single author’s judgement. Future investigations could benefit from a multiple-reviewer approach to further minimize selection bias and enhance the reliability of the study findings.

Despite these limitations, our study’s insights into the current state of disaster management in Saudi Arabia provide a substantial contribution to the field. The findings highlight key areas for improvement and lay the groundwork for future research in this critical domain.

6 Conclusion

Our study provides a valuable overview of the current state of disaster management in Saudi Arabia, identifying key areas of strength and potential avenues for enhancement. The evidence suggests that Saudi Arabia has made notable progress in mitigating disaster impacts, particularly through efforts to improve interoperability, enhance technological infrastructure, and foster international cooperation.

Saudi Arabia’s commitment to leveraging emergent technologies such as artificial intelligence and the Internet of Things is noteworthy, reflecting a progressive attitude towards optimizing disaster management procedures. However, as we embrace these technological advancements, it is crucial to address associated challenges, including those related to data privacy and security.

International collaborations have played an invaluable role in Saudi Arabia’s disaster management progress. Access to cutting-edge technologies, establishing best practices, and improved regional coordination have been significant benefits of these partnerships. The roles of global organizations like the United Nations and the World Health Organization underline the value of international cooperation in disaster mitigation efforts.

Saudi Arabia’s disaster management strategy places particular emphasis on community preparedness and engagement. Strategies fostering a culture of resilience equip communities with the necessary tools and knowledge to react effectively in the face of disasters.

However, our assessment suggests that there is still room for growth. Continuous and rigorous evaluation of disaster response frameworks and protocols can help refine them, fortifying Saudi Arabia’s disaster response capability. The path to a robust disaster management framework involves a comprehensive approach that addresses interoperability challenges, embraces technological advancements, fosters international collaborations, and empowers communities. By staying committed to these efforts, Saudi Arabia can significantly enhance its disaster response and management, positioning itself effectively to navigate the complexities of future disaster management challenges and thereby safeguard the well-being of its population.