Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Same-Sex and Different-Sex Interracial Couples: The Importance of Demographic and Religious Context

  • Published:
Race and Social Problems Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

How does demographic and religious context relate to interracial relationships among same-sex and different-sex couples? Using couple data from the 2012 to 2014 American Community Surveys matched to aggregate data from the 2010 Census and 2010 Religious Congregations and Membership Study, we test how heterogamy patterns for same-sex and different-sex couples vary by the demographic and religious makeup of cities, using multinomial logistic regressions to compare interracial and same-race couples. We find that same-sex couples are more likely to be in a White/Black interracial pairing than different-sex couples. White partners are more likely to be in an interracial relationship if they are in a city with a large minority group population. In addition, context is differently associated with interracial unions for same-sex and different-sex couples, varying for each racial combination.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Our correlation matrix indicates that immigrant group size and proportion Latinx are highly correlated; however, after testing the variance inflation factor, the results do not suggest multicollinearity.

References

  • Alba, R. (2020). The great demographic illusion: Majority, minority, and the expanding American mainstream. Princeton University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, R. N., & Saenz, R. (1994). Structural determinants of Mexican American intermarriage, 1975–1980. Social Science Quarterly, 75(2), 414–430.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baumle, A., Compton, D. R., & Poston, D. L. (2009). Same-sex partners: The social demography of sexual orientation. State University of New York Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Black, D. A., Gates, G., Sanders, S., & Taylor, L. J. (2000). Demographics of the gay and lesbian population in the United States: Evidence from available systematic evidence. Demography, 37(2), 139–154.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, T. C. (2007). Conservative protestant congregations and racial residential segregation: Evaluating the closed community thesis in metropolitan and nonmetropolitan counties. American Sociological Review, 72(3), 416–433.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blau, P. M. (1977). Inequality and heterogeneity: A primitive theory of social structure. Collier Macmillan Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blau, P. M., Blum, T. C., & Schwartz, J. E. (1982). Heterogeneity and intermarriage. American Sociological Review, 47(1), 45–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bumpass, L. L., & Lu, H. H. (2000). Trends in cohabitation and implications for children’s family contexts in the United States. Population Studies, 54(1), 29–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/713779060

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bumpass, L. L., Sweet, J. A., & Cherlin, A. (1991). The role of cohabitation in declining rates of marriage. Journal of Marriage and Family, 53(4), 913–927. https://doi.org/10.2307/352997

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, M. E., & Martin, M. (2015). Race, immigration, and exogamy among the native born: variation across communities. Sociology of Race and Ethnicity, 2(2), 142–161.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Choi, K. H., & Tienda, M. (2016). Marriage-market constraints and mate-selection behavior: Racial, ethnic, and gender differences in intermarriage. Journal of Marriage and Family, 79(2).

  • Craig, M. A., Rucker, J. M., & Richeson, J. A. (2018). Racial and political dynamics of an approaching “majority-minority” United States. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 677(1), 204–214.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cready, C. M., & Saenz, R. (1997). The nonmetro/metro context of racial/ethnic outmarriage: Some differences between African Americans and Mexican Americans. Rural Sociology, 62(3), 335–362.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Emerson, M. O., & Smith, C. (2000). Divided by faith. Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Emerson, M. O., Smith, C., Sikkink, D., Emerson, M. O., Smith, C., & Sikkink, D. (1999). Equal in Christ, but not in the world: White conservative protestants and explanations of black-white inequality. Social Problems, 46(3), 398–417.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fitzpatrick, K. M., & Hwang, S. S. (1992). The effects of community structure on opportunities for interracial contact: Extending Blau’s macrostructural theory. The Sociological Quarterly, 33(1), 51–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gates, G. J. (2012). Same-sex couples in Census 2010 : Race and Ethnicity. Retrieved from http://escholarship.org/uc/item/66521994

  • Gates, G. J. (2015). Demographics of Married and Unmarried Same-sex Couples: Analyses of the 2013 American Community Survey. Retrieved from http://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/Demographics-Same-Sex-Couples-ACS2013-March-2015.pdf

  • Gates, G. J., & Ost, J. (2004). The Gay & Lesbian Atlas. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gault-Sherman, M., & Draper, S. (2012). What will the neighbors think? The effect of moral communities on cohabitation. Review of Religious Research, 54(1), 45–67. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13644-011-0039-9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grammich, C. A. (2012). Religion census: Religious congregations & membership study: An enumeration by Nation, State, and County based on data reported for 236 religious groups. Association of Statisticians of American Religious Bodies. The Association of Religious Data Archives.

  • Herman, M. R., & Campbell, M. E. (2012). I wouldn’t, but you can: Attitudes toward interracial relationships. Social Science Research, 41(2), 343–358. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2011.11.007

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hwang, S. S., Saenz, R., & Aguirre, B. E. (1994). Structural and individual determinants of outmarriage among Chinese-, Filipino-, and Japanese-Americans in California. Sociological Inquiry, 64(4), 396–414. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-682X.1994.tb00399.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hwang, S. S., Saenz, R., & Aguirre, B. E. (1997). Structural and assimilationist explanations of Asian American intermarriage. Journal of Marriage, 59, 758–772.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jepsen, L. K., & Jepsen, C. A. (2002). An empirical analysis of the matching patterns of same-sex and opposite-sex couples. Demography, 39(3), 435–453.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Joyner, K., & Kao, G. (2005). Interracial relationships and the transition to adulthood. American Sociological Review, 70(4), 563–581.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman, G., & Compton, D. L. (2021). Attitudes toward LGBT marriage and legal protections post-Obergefell. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 18, 321–330.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kazyak, E. (2012). Midwest or lesbian? Gender, rurality, and sexuality. Gender & Society, 26(6), 825–848.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, J. (2018). Black LGB identities and perceptions of same-sex marriage. Journal of Homosexuality, 65(14), 2005–2027.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, J., & Bean, F. D. (2010). The diversity paradox: Immigration and the color line in the 21st century. Russell Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, S. M., & Edmonston, B. (2005). New Marriages and New Families: U.S. Racial and Hispanic Intermarriages. Population Bulletin, 60(2), 1–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lichter, D. T., Turner, R. N., & Sassler, S. (2010). National estimates of the rise in serial cohabitation. Social Science Research, 39(5), 754–765. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2009.11.002

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lichterman, P., Carter, P., & Lamont, M. (2009). Race-bridging for Christ conservative Christians and black-white relations in community life. Evangelicals and democracy in America (pp. 187–220). Russell Sage Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lofquist, D. A., & Lewis, J. M. (2015). Improving measurement of same-sex couples. U.S. Census Bureau.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lofquist, D. A., Lugaila, T., O’Connell, M., & Feliz, S. (2012). Households and Families: 2010. 2010 Census Briefs. Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-047163-1.00695-0

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Massey, D. S., & Denton, N. A. (1988). The dimensions of residential segregation. Social Forces, 67(2), 281–315. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/67.2.281

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moore, L. M., & Ovadia, S. (2006). Accounting for spatial variation in tolerance: The effects of education and religion. Social Forces, 84(4), 2205–2222.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Novkov, J. (2008). Racial Union: Law, intimacy, and the White State In Alabama, 1865–1954. University of Michigan Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Office of Management and Budget (OMB). (2000). Final Report and Recommendations from the Metropolitan Area Standards Review Committee to the OMB Concerning Changes to the Standards for Defining Metropolitan Areas. Office of Management and Budget. https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/Final-Report-Aug222000.pdf

  • Olson, L. R., Cadge, W., & Harrison, J. T. (2006). Religion and public opinion about same-sex marriage. Social Science Quarterly, 87(2), 340–360.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oswald, R. F., Cuthbertson, C., Lazarevic, V., & Goldberg, A. E. (2010). New developments in the field: Measuring community climate. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 6(2), 214–228.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pascoe, P. (1991). Race, gender, and intercultural relations: The case of interracial marriage. Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies, 12(1), 5–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pascoe, P. (2009). What comes naturally: Miscegenation law and the making of race in America. Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peach, C. (1980). Ethnic segregation and intermarriage. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 70(3), 371–381.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perry, S. L. (2013a). Religion and whites’ attitudes toward interracial marriage with African Americans, Asians, and Latinos. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 52(2), 425–442. https://doi.org/10.1111/jssr.12020

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perry, S. L. (2013b). Multiracial church attendance and support for same-sex romantic and family relationships. Sociological Inquiry, 83(2), 259–285.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perry, S. L. (2014). Hoping for a godly (white) family: How desire for religious heritage affects whites’ attitudes toward interracial marriage. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 53(1), 202–218.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American Community. Simon and Schuster.

    Google Scholar 

  • Qian, Z., & Lichter, D. T. (2007). Social boundaries and marital assimilation: Interpreting trends in racial and ethnic intermarriage. American Sociological Review, 72(1), 68–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Qian, Z., & Lichter, D. T. (2011). Changing patterns of interracial marriage in a multiracial society. Journal of Marriage and Family, 59(3), 1065–1084.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Quillian, L. (1996). Group threat and regional change in attitudes toward African-Americans. American Journal of Sociology, 102(3), 816–860.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenfeld, M. J. (2007). The age of independence: Interracial unions, same-sex unions, and the changing American family. Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenfeld, M. J., & Kim, B. S. (2005). The independence of young adults and the rise of interracial and same-sex unions. American Sociological Review, 70(4), 541–562.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ruggles, S., Genadek, K., Goeken, R., Grover, J., & Sobek, M. (2015). Integrated public use microdata series: Version 6.0 [machine-readable database]. University of Minnesota.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, C. R., & Graf, N. L. (2009). Assortative matching among same-sex and different-sex couples in the United States, 1990–2000. Demographic Research, 21, 843–878. https://doi.org/10.4054/DemRes.2009.21.28

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, C. R., & Graf, N. L. (2010). Can differences in partner availability explain differences in interracial/ethnic matching between same- and different-sex couples? (Center for Demography and Ecology No. 2010-07).

  • Torngren, S. O., Irastorza, N., & Song, M. (2016). Toward building a conceptual framework on intermarriage. Ethnicities. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468796816638402

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Verbakel, E., & Kalmijn, M. (2014). Assortative mating among Dutch married and cohabiting same-sex and different-sex couples. Journal of Marriage and Family, 76(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12084

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wright, R., Houston, S., Ellis, M., Holloway, S., & Hudson, M. (2003). Crossing racial lines: Geographies of mixed-race partnering and multiraciality in the United States. Progress in Human Geography, 27(4), 457–474.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Jennifer Glanville and Aaron Gullickson for helpful comments, Mark Fossett for building the CBSA file, and Gary Gates for assistance with relationship coding for same-sex couples.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Florida, Gainesville, USA

    Nicole E. Jones

  2. Coker University, Hartsville, USA

    Danny E. Malone Jr.

  3. Texas A&M University, College Station, USA

    Mary E. Campbell

Authors
  1. Nicole E. Jones
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Danny E. Malone Jr.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Mary E. Campbell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Nicole E. Jones.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Jones, N.E., Malone, D.E. & Campbell, M.E. Same-Sex and Different-Sex Interracial Couples: The Importance of Demographic and Religious Context. Race Soc Probl 13, 267–278 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-021-09340-5

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-021-09340-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation