Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

High-performance planar heterojunction perovskite solar cells: Preserving long charge carrier diffusion lengths and interfacial engineering

  • Research Article
  • Published:
Nano Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

We demonstrate that charge carrier diffusion lengths of two classes of perovskites, CH3NH3PbI3−x Cl x and CH3NH3PbI3, are both highly sensitive to film processing conditions and optimal processing procedures are critical to preserving the long carrier diffusion lengths of the perovskite films. This understanding, together with the improved cathode interface using bilayer-structured electron transporting interlayers of [6,6]-phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM)/ZnO, leads to the successful fabrication of highly efficient, stable and reproducible planar heterojunction CH3NH3PbI3−x Cl x solar cells with impressive power-conversion efficiencies (PCEs) up to 15.9%. A 1-square-centimeter device yielding a PCE of 12.3% has been realized, demonstrating that this simple planar structure is promising for large-area devices.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Graetzel, M.; Janssen, R. A. J.; Mitzi, D. B.; Sargent, E. H. Materials interface engineering for solution-processed photovoltaics. Nature 2012, 488, 304–312.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Halls, J. J. M.; Walsh, C. A.; Greenham, N. C.; Marseglia, E. A.; Friend, R. H.; Moratti, S. C.; Holmes, A. B. Efficient photodiodes from interpenetrating polymer networks. Nature 1995, 376, 498–500.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Mikhnenko, O. V.; Azimi, H.; Scharber, M.; Morana, M.; Blom, P. W. M.; Loi, M. A. Exciton diffusion length in narrow bandgap polymers. Energy Environ. Sci. 2012, 5, 6960–6965.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Johnston, K. W.; Pattantyus-Abraham, A. G.; Clifford, J. P.; Myrskog, S. H.; Hoogland, S.; Shukla, H.; Klem, E. J. D.; Levina, L.; Sargent, E. H. Efficient Schottky-quantum-dot photovoltaics: The roles of depletion, drift, and diffusion. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2008, 92, 122111.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Yu, G.; Gao, J.; Hummelen, J. C.; Wudl, F.; Heeger, A. J. Polymer photovoltaic cells: Enhanced efficiencies via a network of internal donor-acceptor heterojunctions. Science 1995, 270, 1789–1791.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. O’Regan, B.; Grätzel, M. A low-cost, high-efficiency solar cell based on dye-sensitized colloidal TiO2 films. Nature 1991, 353, 737–740.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Jean, J.; Chang, S.; Brown, P. R.; Cheng, J. J.; Rekemeyer, P. H.; Bawendi, M. G.; Gradečak, S.; Bulović, V. ZnO nanowire arrays for enhanced photocurrent in PbS quantum dot solar cells. Adv. Mater. 2013, 25, 2790–2796.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Im, J. H.; Lee, C. R.; Lee, J. W.; Park, S. W.; Park, N. G. 6.5% efficient perovskite quantum-dot-sensitized solar cell. Nanoscale 2011, 3, 4088–4093.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Kojima, A.; Teshima, K.; Shirai, Y.; Miyasaka, T. Organometal halide perovskites as visible-light sensitizers for photovoltaic cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2009, 131, 6050–6051.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Lee, M. M.; Teuscher, J.; Miyasaka, T.; Murakami, T. N.; Snaith, H. J. Efficient hybrid solar cells based on meso-superstructured organometal halide perovskites. Science 2012, 338, 643–647.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Kim, H. S.; Lee, C. R.; Im, J. H.; Lee, K. B.; Moehl, T.; Marchioro, A.; Moon, S. J.; Humphry-Baker, R.; Yum, J. H.; Moser, J. E. et al. Lead iodide perovskite sensitized all-solid-state submicron thin film mesoscopic solar cell with efficiency exceeding 9%. Sci. Rep. 2012, 2, 591.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Stranks, S. D.; Eperon, G. E.; Grancini, G.; Menelaou, C.; Alcocer, M. J. P.; Leijtens, T.; Herz, L. M.; Petrozza, A.; Snaith, H. J. Electron-hole diffusion lengths exceeding 1 micrometer in an organometal trihalide perovskite absorber. Science 2013, 342, 341–344.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Xing, G.; Mathews, N.; Sun, S.; Lim, S. S.; Lam, Y. M.; Grätzel, M.; Mhaisalkar, S.; Sum, T. C. Long-range balanced electron- and hole-transport lengths in organic-inorganic CH3NH3PbI3. Science 2013, 342, 344–347.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Burschka, J.; Pellet, N.; Moon, S.-J.; Humphry-Baker, R.; Gao, P.; Nazeeruddin, M. K.; Gratzel, M. Sequential deposition as a route to high-performance perovskite-sensitized solar cells. Nature 2013, 499, 316–319.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Heo, J. H.; Im, S. H.; Noh, J. H.; Mandal, T. N.; Lim, C. S.; Chang, J. A.; Lee, Y. H.; Kim, H. j.; Sarkar, A.; NazeeruddinMd, K. et al. Efficient inorganic-organic hybrid heterojunction solar cells containing perovskite compound and polymeric hole conductors. Nat. Photon. 2013, 7, 486–491.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Ball, J. M.; Lee, M. M.; Hey, A.; Snaith, H. J. Low-temperature processed meso-superstructured to thin-film perovskite solar cells. Energy Environ. Sci. 2013, 6, 1739–1743.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Kim, H. S.; Lee, J. W.; Yantara, N.; Boix, P. P.; Kulkarni, S. A.; Mhaisalkar, S.; Grätzel, M.; Park, N.-G. High efficiency solid-state sensitized solar cell-based on submicrometer rutile TiO2 nanorod and CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite sensitizer. Nano Lett. 2013, 13, 2412–2417.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Zhang, W.; Saliba, M.; Stranks, S. D.; Sun, Y.; Shi, X.; Wiesner, U.; Snaith, H. J. Enhancement of perovskite-based solar cells employing core-shell metal nanoparticles. Nano Lett. 2013, 13, 4505–4510.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Abrusci, A.; Stranks, S. D.; Docampo, P.; Yip, H.-L.; Jen, A. K.-Y.; Snaith, H. J. High-performance perovskite-polymer hybrid solar cells via electronic coupling with fullerene monolayers. Nano Lett. 2013, 13, 3124–3128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Etgar, L.; Gao, P.; Xue, Z.; Peng, Q.; Chandiran, A. K.; Liu, B.; Nazeeruddin, M. K.; Gratzel, M. Mesoscopic CH3NH3PbI3/TiO2 heterojunction solar cells. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2012, 134, 17396–17399.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Kumar, M. H.; Yantara, N.; Dharani, S.; Graetzel, M.; Mhaisalkar, S.; Boix, P. P.; Mathews, N. Flexible, low-temperature, solution processed ZnO-based perovskite solid state solar cells. Chem. Commun. 2013, 49, 11089–11091.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Wojciechowski, K.; Saliba, M.; Leijtens, T.; Abate, A.; Snaith, H. J. Sub 150 °C orocessed meso-superstructured perovskite solar cells with enhanced efficiency. Energy Environ. Sci. 2013, 7, 1142–1147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Chen, Q.; Zhou, H.; Hong, Z.; Luo, S.; Duan, H.-S.; Wang, H. H.; Liu, Y.; Li, G.; Yang, Y. Planar heterojunction perovskite solar cells via vapor-assisted solution process. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2014, 136, 622–625.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Liu, D.; Kelly, T. L. Perovskite solar cells with a planar heterojunction structure prepared using room-temperature solution processing techniques. Nat. Photon. 2014, 8, 133–138.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Malinkiewicz, O.; Yella, A.; Lee, Y. H.; Espallargas, G. M.; Graetzel, M.; Nazeeruddin, M. K.; Bolink, H. J. Perovskite solar cells employing organic charge-transport layers. Nat. Photon. 2014, 8, 128–132.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Jeng, J.-Y.; Chiang, Y.-F.; Lee, M.-H.; Peng, S.-R.; Guo, T.-F.; Chen, P.; Wen, T.-C. CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite/fullerene planar-heterojunction hybrid solar cells. Adv. Mater. 2013, 25, 3727–3732.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Eperon, G. E.; Burlakov, V. M.; Docampo, P.; Goriely, A.; Snaith, H. J. Morphological control for high performance, solution-processed planar heterojunction perovskite solar cells. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2014, 24, 151–157.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. You, J.; Hong, Z.; Yang, Y.; Chen, Q.; Cai, M.; Song, T.-B.; Chen, C.-C.; Lu, S.; Liu, Y.; Zhou, H. et al. Low-temperature solution-processed perovskite solar cells with high efficiency and flexibility. ACS Nano 2014, 8, 1674–1680.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Sun, S.; Salim, T.; Mathews, N.; Duchamp, M.; Boothroyd, C.; Xing, G.; Sum, T. C.; Lam, Y. M. The origin of high efficiency in low-temperature solution-processable bilayer organometal halide hybrid solar cells. Energy Environ. Sci. 2014, 7, 399–407.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Docampo, P.; Ball, J. M.; Darwich, M.; Eperon, G. E.; Snaith, H. J. Efficient organometal trihalide perovskite planar-heterojunction solar cells on flexible polymer substrates. Nat. Commun. 2013, 4, 2761.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Liu, M.; Johnston, M. B.; Snaith, H. J. Efficient planar heterojunction perovskite solar cells by vapour deposition. Nature 2013, 501, 395–398.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Conings, B.; Baeten, L.; De Dobbelaere, C.; D’Haen, J.; Manca, J.; Boyen, H.-G. Perovskite-based hybrid solar cells exceeding 10% efficiency with high reproducibility using a thin film sandwich approach. Adv. Mater. 2014, 26, 2041–2046.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Eperon, G. E.; Stranks, S. D.; Menelaou, C.; Johnston, M. B.; Herz, L. M.; Snaith, H. J. Formamidinium lead trihalide: A broadly tunable perovskite for efficient planar heterojunction solar cells. Energy Environ. Sci. 2014, 7, 982–988.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Cheng, Z.; Lin, J. Layered organic-inorganic hybrid perovskites: Structure, optical properties, film preparation, patterning and templating engineering. Cryst. Eng. Comm 2010, 12, 2646–2662.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Noh, J. H.; Im, S. H.; Heo, J. H.; Mandal, T. N.; Seok, S. I. Chemical management for colorful, efficient, and stable inorganic-organic hybrid nanostructured solar cells. Nano Lett. 2013, 13, 1764–1769.

    Google Scholar 

  36. Dualeh, A.; Tétreault, N.; Moehl, T.; Gao, P.; Nazeeruddin, M. K.; Grätzel, M. Effect of annealing temperature on film morphology of organic-inorganic hybrid pervoskite solid-state solar cells. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2014, 24, 3250–3258.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Snaith, H. J.; Abate, A.; Ball, J. M.; Eperon, G. E.; Leijtens, T.; Noel, N. K.; Stranks, S. D.; Wang, J. T.-W.; Wojciechowski, K.; Zhang, W. Anomalous hysteresis in perovskite solar cells. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2014, 5, 1511–1515.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Jørgensen, M.; Norrman, K.; Krebs, F. C. Stability/degradation of polymer solar cells. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 2008, 92, 686–714.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Wang, M.; Xie, F.; Du, J.; Tang, Q.; Zheng, S.; Miao, Q.; Chen, J.; Zhao, N.; Xu, J. B. Degradation mechanism of organic solar cells with aluminum cathode. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 2011, 95, 3303–3310.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Zhang, Q.; Wan, X.; Xing, F.; Huang, L.; Long, G.; Yi, N.; Ni, W.; Liu, Z.; Tian, J.; Chen, Y. Solution-processable graphene mesh transparent electrodes for organic solar cells. Nano Res. 2013, 6, 478–484.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Schwartz, D. A.; Norberg, N. S.; Nguyen, Q. P.; Parker, J. M.; Gamelin, D. R. Magnetic quantum dots: Synthesis, spectroscopy, and magnetism of Co2+- and Ni2+- doped ZnO nanocrystals. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2003, 125, 13205–13218.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Yin, X.; Wang, B.; He, M.; He, T. Facile synthesis of ZnO nanocrystals via a solid state reaction for high performance plastic dye-sensitized solar cells. Nano Res. 2012, 5, 1–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Krebs, F. C.; Spanggard, H.; Kjær, T.; Biancardo, M.; Alstrup, J. Large area plastic solar cell modules. Mater. Sci. Eng. B 2007, 138, 106–111.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. State Key Laboratory of Silicon Materials, Cyrus Tang Center for Sensor Materials and Applications, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, and Center for Chemistry of High-Performance and Novel Materials, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China

    Sai Bai, Yizheng Jin, Zhihui Chen, Qingqing Mei, Xin Wang & Zhizhen Ye

  2. Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Carbon-Based Functional Materials & Devices, Institute of Functional Nano & Soft Materials (FUNSOM) and Collaborative Innovation Center of Suzhou Nano Science and Technology, Soochow University, 199 Ren’ai Road, Suzhou, 215123, China

    Zhongwei Wu, Tao Song, Ruiyuan Liu, Shuit-tong Lee & Baoquan Sun

  3. Department of Electronic Engineering, the Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong, China

    Xiaojing Wu & Ni Zhao

  4. Shenzhen Research Institute, the Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong, China

    Ni Zhao

Authors
  1. Sai Bai
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Zhongwei Wu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Xiaojing Wu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Yizheng Jin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Ni Zhao
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Zhihui Chen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Qingqing Mei
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Xin Wang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Zhizhen Ye
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  10. Tao Song
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  11. Ruiyuan Liu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  12. Shuit-tong Lee
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  13. Baoquan Sun
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Yizheng Jin or Baoquan Sun.

Additional information

Both authors contributed equally to this work.

Electronic supplementary material

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Bai, S., Wu, Z., Wu, X. et al. High-performance planar heterojunction perovskite solar cells: Preserving long charge carrier diffusion lengths and interfacial engineering. Nano Res. 7, 1749–1758 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12274-014-0534-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12274-014-0534-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation