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Spatial Distribution of Relict Inland Mangrove (Rhizophora mangle L.) in the San Pedro River Basin: A Transboundary Analysis between Mexico and Guatemala

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Abstract

Inland mangroves represent a unique ecosystem that develops away from coastal areas in response to specific environmental changes. Despite their ecological value, these ecosystems are often underestimated globally. Remote sensing (RS) techniques are widely used for large-scale monitoring of mangroves worldwide. This study aims to map mangrove relicts (Rhizophora mangle L.) in the Transboundary San Pedro River Basin (TSPRB), which spans Mexico and Guatemala, using RS and geographic information system (GIS) techniques. Field surveys were conducted to collect 419 ground points, distributed across the control (274 points) and verification (145 points), ensuring accurate classification of mangrove areas. To evaluate the performance of mangrove forest classification, we used composite images created from the red (B2), green (B3), blue (B4), and near-infrared (NIR) bands, along with the Normalized Difference Mangrove Index (NDMI). For this purpose, we applied the maximum likelihood classification (MLC) method, which effectively combines spectral information from composite images to achieve precise mangrove detection. The land cover classification was performed using Sentinel-2 from 2023 and the NDMI, achieving an accuracy of 80% and a Kappa Index of 0.73. The results show 2130.69 ha of mangroves along the San Pedro River. It includes 1868.38 ha in Mexico and 262.31 ha in Guatemala. In addition, areas were identified in Guatemala, where relict island mangroves are located the greatest distance from the coast worldwide (approximately 250 km). These findings highlight the ecological importance of mangrove ecosystems in this region and provide critical information for their management, conservation, and protection in the TSPRB.

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank San Pedro River’s riparian communities, especially William de Jesús Miss Dehara (Sueño de Oro, Tenosique) and Antonio Nahuath N. (Capitán Felipe Castellanos Díaz better known as San Pedro, Balancan), for their assistance and local knowledge during fieldwork: “It cannot discover (to claim or attribute) what was already discovered by them.” The authors also thank Msc. Rony A. García Anleu, Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), and Sergio D’angelo Jerez, FLAAR Mesoamérica, for the information on the mangroves of Guatemala. We thank the anonymous reviewers for their comments and suggestions regarding this study. The authors also thank the Global Change and Sustainability Center (GCSC) for providing support and facilities for conducting this study. In addition, ORMP thanks the Researchers for Mexico program and the project Catedras-CCGS number 963 “Towards sustainable water management in southeastern Mexico and adjacent areas of Central America.”

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Centro del Cambio Global y La Sustentabilidad, A.C. (CCGS), Villahermosa, Tabasco, Mexico

    Candelario Peralta-Carreta & Ojilve Ramón Medrano-Pérez

  2. SECIHTI-Tecnológico Nacional de México/Instituto Tecnológico Superior de Misantla (ITSM), Misantla, Veracruz, Mexico

    Ojilve Ramón Medrano-Pérez

  3. Cultivo Land PBC, 5020 Franklin Drive, Suite 100, Pleasanton, CA, 94588, USA

    Alejandro Alcudia-Aguilar

  4. Faculty of Natural Sciences, Institute of Earth Sciences, University of Silesia in Katowice, Sosnowiec, Poland

    Quoc Bao Pham

  5. Instituto Tecnológico Superior de La Venta (ITSLV), Huimanguillo, Tabasco, México

    Héctor Javier Megia-Vera

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  1. Candelario Peralta-Carreta
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Contributions

Software, validation, formal analysis, investigation, writing (original draft preparation, review, and editing), and visualization: C.P.C.; conceptualization, methodology, software, validation, formal analysis, investigation, writing (original draft preparation, review, and editing), and visualization: O.R.M.P.; conceptualization, methodology, software, validation, formal analysis, investigation, writing (original draft preparation, review, and editing), and visualization: A.A.A; formal analysis, investigation, and writing—review, editing: Q.B.P; support in field sampling: H.J.M.V. All the authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

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Correspondence to Ojilve Ramón Medrano-Pérez.

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The authors declare no competing interests.

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Communicated by Erik Yando

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Peralta-Carreta, C., Medrano-Pérez, O.R., Alcudia-Aguilar, A. et al. Spatial Distribution of Relict Inland Mangrove (Rhizophora mangle L.) in the San Pedro River Basin: A Transboundary Analysis between Mexico and Guatemala. Estuaries and Coasts 48, 59 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12237-025-01492-6

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