Abstract
The study analyzes three major cyberbullying incidents that occurred on Facebook between 2019 and 2020 to understand how the practices of patriarchal masculinities are involved in cyberbullying. The research employs the "4I's framework” of UN Women to understand the relationship between cyberbullying and different levels of patriarchal masculinities, the internal, interpersonal, institutional, and ideological. The official Facebook page of the Daily Prothom Alo, one of the most popular newspapers in Bangladesh, has been considered for collecting and analyzing the contents. The reason for selecting the official Facebook page of the newspaper for data collection is the availability of comment threads of Facebook users in the public domain on particular cyberbullying incidents. The paper's significant findings reveal that victim blaming, demeaning women and girls, and institutional steps undertaken to ensure justice for the victims are the main attributes that construct the dominant community opinion online. In this context, ideas and practices of internal and ideological patriarchal masculinities characterized by the misogynist attitudes are the new ways to normalize and legitimize sexual assault, physical assault, and humiliation of women and girls, which ultimately contributes to the escalation of cyberbullying. The research also uncovers positive discourse initiated by social media users aimed at promoting awareness against the practices of patriarchal masculinities which exacerbatetendencies such as—victim blaming, slut-shaming, rape culture, and demeaning women and girls. The study concludes by offering recommendations to protect women and girls from cyberbullying encompassing awareness programs, improvement in reporting and blocking functionalities on social media platforms, and the strengthening of image processing and filtering mechanisms.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
6.6m readership makes Prothom Alo highest read Bangladesh daily. (2018, October 25). Prothomalo. https://en.prothomalo.com/bangladesh/6.6m-readership-makes-Prothom-Alo-highest-read
Ahmed, S., Kabir, A., Sneha, S. S. A., & Jafrin, S. (2017). Cyber-crimes against womenfolk on social networks: Bangladesh context. International Journal of Computer Applications, 174(4), 9–15. https://doi.org/10.5120/ijca2017915407
Akter, F. (2018). Cyber Violence against Women: The Case of Bangladesh. GenderIT.org. https://www.genderit.org/articles/cyber-violence-against-women-case-bangladesh
Ali, A. (2020. December 7). Video of men harassing a woman for smoking in public goes viral. The Daily Star https://www.thedailystar.net/city/news/video-men-harassing-woman-smoking-public-goes-viral-2007349
Anderson, A. A., Brossard, D., Scheufele, D. A., Xenos, M. A., & Ladwig, P. (2014). The “nasty effect:” Online incivility and risk perceptions of emerging technologies. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 19(3), 373–387. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcc4.12009
Antara, N. F., Tipu, S. I., & Babu, A. I. (2021, January 8). O level student death: Dihan confesses to charges, sent to jail. The Dhaka Tribune. 2021 https://archive.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2021/01/08/o-level-student-s-death-dihan-taken-to-court
Armstrong, C. L., & Mahone, J. (2017). It is on us. The role of social media and rape culture in individual willingness to mobilize against sexual assault. Mass Communication and Society. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2016.1185127
Association for Progressive Communication. (2015). Technology-related Violence against Women: A Briefing Paper. GenderIT.org. https://www.genderit.org/sites/default/upload/APC-Technology-related%20violence%20against%20women%20-%20a%20briefing%20paper.pdf
Baym, N. K., & Boyd, D. (2012). Socially mediated publicness: An introduction. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 56(3), 320–329. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2012.7052009
Bluett-Boyd, N., Fileborn, B., Quadara, A., (2013). The role of emerging communication technologies in experiences of sexual violence: A new legal frontier? https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257139212_The_role_of_emerging_communication_technologies_in_experiences_of_sexual_violence_A_new_legal_frontier
Britannica. (n.d.). Languages of Bangladesh. https://www.britannica.com/place/Bangladesh/Languages
Brod, H. (Ed.). (1987). The making of Masculinities: The new men’s studies. Allen and Unwin.
Brownmiller, S. (1975). Against our will: Men, women, and rape. Penguin Books.
Buchwald, E., Fletcher, P., & Roth, M. (2005). Transforming a rape culture (2nd ed.). Milkweed Editions.
Carrigan, T., Connell, R., & Lee, J. (1985). Toward a new sociology of masculinity. Theory and Society, 14(5), 551–604. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00160017
Cohen, S. (2015, October 7). How a book changed the way we talk about rape. Time. https://time.com/4062637/against-our-will-40/
Connell, R. (1995). Masculinities. University of Cambridge Press.
Cyber Crime Investigation Division, CTTC, DMP (2020). Cyber Life. www.facebook.com/cyberlife001
Cyber violence against women It is time to sensitise people to the problem. (2021, February 24), The Bangladesh Post, https://bangladeshpost.net/posts/cyber-violence-against-women-43635
Death by excessive bleeding due to rape. (2021, January 8). The Daily Prothom Alo. https://www.prothomalo.com/bangladesh/capital/%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%87-%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4-%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%87-%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81
Defendant hangout - over harassment of young woman over smoking. (2020, December 12). The Daily Prothom Alo. https://www.prothomalo.com/bangladesh/district/%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%9F%E0%A7%87-%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%87-%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE-%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%9F-%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%80-%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%A1%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BE
Defendant Meeting for harassing young woman over smoking.(2020, December 12). The Daily Prothom Alo. https://www.prothomalo.com/bangladesh/district/%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8-%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%9F%E0%A7%87-%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%87-%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE-%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%9F-%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%80-%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%A1%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BE
Dodge, A. (2016). Digitizing rape culture: Online sexual violence and the power of the digital photograph. Crime Media Culture, 12(1), 65–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741659015601173
Edwards, K. M., Turchik, J. A., Dardis, C. M., Reynolds, N., & Gidycz, C. A. (2011). Rape myths: History, individual and institutional-level presence, and implications for change. Sex Roles, 65(11–12), 761–773. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-9943-2
Eigenberg, H., & Garland, T. (2008). Victim blaming. In L. J. Moriarty (Ed.), Controversies in victimology (2nd ed., pp. 21–36). LexisNexis Anderson Publishing.
Elo, S., & Kyngäs, H. (2008). The qualitative content analysis process. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 62(1), 107–115. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2007.04569.x
Enns, C. Z. (2010). Locational feminisms and feminist social identity analysis. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 41(3), 217–223. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020260
Fairbairn, J., Bivens, R., & Dawson, M. (2013). Sexual violence and social media: Building a framework for prevention. OCTEVAW & Crime Prevention Ottawa. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280076573_Sexual_Violence_and_Social_Media_Building_a_Framework_for_Prevention
Fairbairn, J. (2015). Rape threats and revenge porn: Defining sexual violence in the digital age. In J. Bailey & V. Steeves (Eds.), eGirls, eCitizens (pp. 229–252). University of Ottawa Press.
Fascendini, F., & Fialová, K. (2011). Voices from digital spaces: Technology related violence against women. APC WNSP. https://www.eldis.org/document/A64050
FemGen angry at victim-blaming, demands families hold boys, men accountable (2021, January 11). The Financial Express. https://www.thefinancialexpress.com.bd/national/femgen-angry-at-victim-blaming-demands-families-hold-boys-men-accountable-1610366975
Friedman, J., & Valenti, J. (2008). Introduction. In J. Friedman & J. Valenti (Eds.), Yes Means Yes!: Visions of female sexual power and a world without rape (pp. ix–xv). Seal Press.
Gadd, D. (2002). Masculinities and violence against female partners. Social and Legal Studies, 11(2), 61–80. https://doi.org/10.1177/096466390201100103
Gelinas, L., Pierce, R., Winkler, S., Cohen, I. G., Lynch, H. F., & Bierer, B. E. (2017). Using social media as a research recruitment tool: Ethical issues and recommendations. The American Journal of Bioethics, 17(3), 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2016.1276644
Giraldi, A., & Monk-Turner, E. (2017). Perception of rape culture on a college campus: A look at social media posts. Women’s Studies International Forum, 60, 28–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2017.05.001
Glaser, J. (2004). Why are the most influential books in Australian sociology not necessarily the most highly cited ones? Journal of Sociology, 40, 261–282. https://doi.org/10.1177/1440783304046370
Gqola, P. (2015). Rape: A South African nightmare. MFBooks Joburg.
Graneheim, U., & Lundman, B. (2004). Qualitative content analysis in nursing research: Concepts, procedures and measures to achieve trustworthiness. Nurse Education Today, 24(2), 105–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2003.10.001
Grubb, A., & Turner, E. (2012). Attribution of blame in rape cases: A review of the impact of rape myth acceptance, gender role conformity and substance use on victim blaming. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 17, 443–452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2012.06.002
Halberstam, J. (1998). Female Masculinity. Duke University Press.
Hammock, G. S., & Richardson, D. R. (1993). Blaming drunk victims: Is it just world or sex role violation? Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 23(19), 1574–1586. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1993.tb01048.x
Hardig, A. C. (2020, February 18). Conservative Islamic views are gaining ground in secular Bangladesh and curbing freedom of expression. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/conservative-islamic-views-are-gaining-ground-in-secular-bangladesh-and-curbing-freedom-of-expression-128692
Huq, S., & Mortada, S. S. (2020, October 19). To tackle sexual violence in Bangladesh the culture of victim blaming must end. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/oct/19/to-tackle-sexual-violence-in-bangladesh-the-culture-of-victim-blaming-must-end
Indian director Srijit stands beside actress Mithila over photo leak. (2019, November 7). The Weekly Bangladesh. https://weeklybangladeshny.net/en/archives/2494
Jahan, N. (2021, January 9). Victim blaming must stop. The Daily Star. https://www.thedailystar.net/frontpage/news/victim-blaming-must-stop-2024573
Khan, M. E., & Townsend, J. W. (2014). Representation of the Masculine Identity in Bangladesh. In M. E. Khan, J. W. Townsend, & P. J. Pelto (Eds.), Sexuality, gender roles, and domestic violence in South Asia (pp. 113–132). Population Council.
Kimmel, S. B., Hearn, J., & Connell, R. W. (Eds.). (2005). Handbook of studies on men and masculinities. Sage.
Kosinski, M., Matz, S. C., Gosling, S. D., Popov, V., & Stillwell, D. (2015). Facebook as a research tool for the social sciences: Opportunities, challenges, ethical considerations, and practical guidelines. The American Psychologist, 70(6), 543–556. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039210
Landström, S., Strömwall, L. A., & Alfredsson, H. (2016). Blame attributions in sexual crimes: Effects of belief in a just world and victim behavior. Nordic Psychology, 68(1), 2–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/19012276.2015.1026921
Lerner, M. J. (1980). The belief in a just world: A fundamental delusion. Plenum Press.
Level student rape: Schoolmates demand fair, speedy trial (2021, January 14). The Dhaka Tribune. https://archive.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2021/01/14/mastermind-school-students-demand-speedy-tribunal-for-fellow-rape-victim
Lijadi, A. A., & van Schalkwyk, G. J. (2015). Online Facebook focus group research of hard-to-reach participants. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 14(2), 160–173. https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406915621383
Lindsey, L. A., & Miescher, S. (Eds.). (2003). Men and masculinities in modern Africa. Heinemann.
Mahmud, I. (2020, September 11). Cyberbullying in Bangladesh alarming. The New Age. https://www.newagebd.net/article/116007/cyberbullying-in-bangladesh-alarming
Malhotra, N. (2020). End violence: Women's rights and safety online: Good questions on technology-related violence. Association for Progressive Communications. https://www.apc.org/en/project/end-violence-womens-rights-and-safety-online
Messerschmidt, J. W. (2000). Nine lives: Adolescent masculinities, the body, and violence. Westview Press.
Mithila Files Complaint. (2019, November 6). Shampratik Deshkal English. https://en.shampratikdeshkal.com/entertainment/news/19112224/ithila-files-complaint
Mithila’s FB statement on this makes me all the more proud of her: Srijit (2019, November 6). Entertainment Times. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/bengali/movies/news/mithilas-fb-statement-on-this-makes-me-all-the-more-proud-of-her-srijit/articleshow/71936006.cms
Mithila's 'intimate' photo with Fahmi leaked!. (2019, November 5). The Daily Sun.https://www.daily-sun.com/post/436631/Mithilas-intimate-photo-with-Fahmi-leaked
Mithila's tough response to cyber bullying (2020, December, 13). Bangladesh Post. https://bangladeshpost.net/posts/mithila-s-tough-response-to-cyber-bullying-49004
Morrell, R. (Ed.). (2001). Changing men in Southern Africa. University of Natal Press.
Moss-Racusin, C. A., Molenda, A. K., & Cramer, C. R. (2015). Can evidence impact attitudes? Public reactions to evidence of gender bias in STEM fields. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 39(2), 194–209. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684314565777
Mother doubts O-level student rape, murder probe (2021, January 14). The New Age. https://www.newagebd.net/article/127183/mother-doubts-o-level-student-rape-murder-probe
Muhsin, Dr. M. D. A. (2021, January 18). Rape and murder of the O-level student: Where is the root of problem? The Independent. https://www.theindependentbd.com/post/258403
Nilan, P., Broom, A., Demartoto, A., Doron, A., Nayar, R. K., & Germov, J. (2008). Masculinities and violence in India and Indonesia: Identifying themes and constructs for research. Journal of Health and Development, 4(14), 209–228. https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.3193.3125
Oakley, A. (1972). Sex, gender, and society. Sun Books.
Order to remove the private photos of Mithila-Fahmi (2019, December 9). The Prothom Alo. Retrieve from https://www.facebook.com/DailyProthomAlo/posts/3061985077167891
Orth, Z., Andipatin, M., Mukumbang, F. C., & van Wyk, B. (2020). Applying qualitative methods to investigate social actions for justice using social media: Illustrations from Facebook. Social Media Society, 6(2), 205630512091992. https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305120919926
Orth, Z., Andipatin, M., & Wyk, B. V. (2021). These women are making a statement against rape and yet the only thing Y’All can focus on is ‘EWW they’re naked’”: Exploring rape culture on facebook in South Africa. Gender Issues, 38, 243–259. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12147-020-09271-7
Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2012). Nursing research: Generating and assessing evidence for nursing practice (9th ed.). Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Rafter, N., & Heidensohn, F. (Eds.). (1995). International feminist perspectives. Open University Press.
Rape, Murder Of O-Level Student: Doctor confirms rape, finds injury marks (2021, January 9). The Dhaka Tribune. https://www.thedailystar.net/frontpage/news/rape-murder-o-level-student-doctor-confirms-rape-finds-injury-marks-2024553
Ratele, K. (2007). Native Chief and White Headman: A Critical African Gender Analysis of Culture. Agenda: Empowering Women for Gender Equity, 72, 65–76. https://www.jstor.org/stable/27739275
Ratele, K. (2013). Masculinities without Tradition. Politikon, 40(1), 133–156. https://doi.org/10.1080/02589346.2013.765680
Remove Mithila, Fahmi's intimate photos from internet: HC (2019, December 8). The Daily Observer. Retrieve from https://www.observerbd.com/news.php?id=232464
Ryan, W. (1971). Blaming the victim. Pantheon Books.
Salam, R. (2022). In a world where you can be anyone: An investigation into the gendered social practices of Pakistani facebook users. Gender Issues, 39, 253–274. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12147-021-09289-0
Schreier, M. (2012). Qualitative content analysis in practice. SAGE Publications Ltd.
Shariff, S., & DeMartini, A. (2015). Defining the legal lines: EGirls and intimate images. In J. Bailey & V. Steeves (Eds.), eGirls, eCitizens (pp. 281–306). University of Ottawa Press.
Social Media Stats Bangladesh. (n.d.). StatCounter. https://gs.statcounter.com/social-media-stats/all/bangladesh
Smith, M. (2004). Encyclopedia of rape. Greenwood Press.
Statista. (2022). Countries with the most Facebook users 2022. https://www.statista.com/statistics/268136/top-15-countries-based-on-number-of-facebook-users/
Stubbs-Richardson, M., Rader, N. E., & Cosby, A. G. (2018). Tweeting rape culture: Examining portrayals of victim blaming in discussions of sexual assault cases on Twitter. Feminism & Psychology, 28(1), 90–108. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959353517715874
Suvarna, A., Bhalla, G., Kumar, S., & Bhardwaj, A. (2020, July 22–24). Identifying victim blaming language in discussions about sexual assaults on Twitter [Paper presentation]. In 11th International Conference on Social Media and Society (SMSociety ’20), ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/3400806.3400825
UNDP launches 'My Response' campaign against cyberbullying (2021, June 18). The Dhaka Tribune. https://archive.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2021/06/18/undp-launches-myresponse-campaign-against-cyberbullying
UNDP launches “MyResponse” campaign against cyber bullying. (June 18, 2021). Bangladesh Sangbad Sangstha (BSS). https://wp.bssnews.net/?p=596872
UN Women. (2016). Self-Learning Booklet: Understanding Masculinities and Violence against Women and Girls. UN Women. https://trainingcentre.unwomen.org/RESOURCES_LIBRARY/Resources_Centre/masculinities%20booklet%20.pdf
Vitak, J. (2016). Facebook as a research tool in the social and computer sciences. In L. Sloan & A. Quan-Haase (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of social media research methods (pp. 627–642). Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473983847.n37
Wedgewood, N. (2009). Connell’s theory of masculinity – its origins and influences on the study of gender. Journal of Gender Studies, 18(4), 329–339. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589230903260001
West, J. (2014). Cyber-Violence against Women. Battered Women's Support Services. Battered Women’s Support Services. http://www.bwss.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/CyberVAWReportJessicaWest.pdf
Zaleski, K. L., Gundersen, K. K., Baes, J., Estupinian, E., & Vergara, A. (2016). Exploring rape culture in social media forums. Computers in Human Behavior, 63, 922–927. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.06.036
Funding
Funding is essential to any research, providing the necessary resources and support for a study. However, this research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. As a result, the research was carried out using the researcher's resources and support, including personal time and expertise.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Islam, L. Patriarchal Masculinities and Cyberbullying on Facebook: Unraveling Interconnections and Implications in the Context of Bangladesh. Gend. Issues 41, 1 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12147-023-09318-0
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12147-023-09318-0