Abstract
Meat is a food item that is often associated with masculinity. Considering this gender stereotype, research on vegan and vegetarian (veg*n) eating motives has focused on how distinct motives relate to stereotypes of masculinity and femininity. Quantitative studies examining how masculinity and femininity are integrated into the self-concept of these eaters are lacking to date. Moreover, investigators have largely tested the effects of motives in isolation, neglecting the possibility of different motivational profiles that relate differently to gendered self-concepts. The current study adopted a person-centred approach using cluster analysis to identify motivational profiles of self-identified veg*n males, thereby testing whether these profiles differ on dimensions of positive and negative masculinity and femininity. Self-reported data were collected via an online survey among people self-identifying as male and following a vegan or vegetarian dietary pattern (N = 738; 79.8% vegans). A k-means cluster analysis revealed three motivational profiles (\({n}_{1}\)= 439, 59.5%, ‘equally-balanced’; \({n}_{2}\) = 254, 34.4%, ‘ethical-environmental’; \({n}_{3}\)= 45, 6.1%, ‘moderately-health’). Unique differences emerged in gendered self-concepts tied to all veg*n eating motive profile memberships: Equally-balanced motivated eaters perceived themselves to possess the most positive stereotypical feminine attributes, while moderately-health motivated eaters described themselves with the least of these attributes. Veg*n eaters did not differ on any of the other dimensions of femininity and masculinity. The present study demonstrates that a cluster analysis supplies important information on what combinations of eating motives veg*n males report and how those relate to differences in gendered self-concepts of veg*n eaters.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adams, C. J. (1990). The sexual politics of meat: A feminist-vegetarian critical theory (20th century ed.). The Continuum Publishing Company.
Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T
Auster, C. J., & Ohm, S. C. (2000). Masculinity and femininity in contemporary American society: A reevaluation using the Bem Sex-Role Inventory. Sex Roles, 43(7–8), 499–528. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007119516728
Baber, K. M., & Tucker, C. J. (2006). The social roles questionnaire: A new approach to measuring attitudes toward gender. Sex Roles, 54(7), 459–467. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9018-y
De Backer, C., Erreygers, S., De Cort, C., Vandermoere, F., Dhoest, A., Vrinten, J., & Van Bauwel, S. (2020). Meat and masculinities. Can differences in masculinity predict meat consumption, intentions to reduce meat and attitudes towards vegetarians?. Appetite, 147, 104559. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2019.104559
Baltar, F., & Brunet, I. (2012). Social research 2.0: Virtual snowball sampling method using Facebook. Internet Research, 22(1), 57–74. https://doi.org/10.1108/10662241211199960
Bartke, J. (2019). Hegemonic masculinity, food and identity – Uncovering the relationship between dominant discourses and future diets [Uppsala University]. Retrieved November 15, 2022, from http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-387632
Berger, A., & Krahé, B. (2013). Negative attributes are gendered too: Conceptualizing and measuring positive and negative facets of sex-role identity. European Journal of Social Psychology, 43(6), 516–531. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.1970
Brady, J., & Ventresca, M. (2014). “Officially a vegan now”: On meat and renaissance masculinity in pro football. Food and Foodways, 22(4), 300–321. https://doi.org/10.1080/07409710.2014.964605
Brickman Bhutta, C. (2012). Not by the book: Facebook as a sampling frame. Sociological Methods & Research, 41(1), 57–88. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124112440795
Cain, M. K., Zhang, Z., & Yuan, K. H. (2017). Univariate and multivariate skewness and kurtosis for measuring nonnormality: Prevalence, influence and estimation. Behavior Research Methods, 49(5), 1716–1735. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-016-0814-1
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Erlbaum.
Çoker, E. N., & van der Linden, S. (2022). Fleshing out the theory of planned of behavior: Meat consumption as an environmentally significant behavior. Current Psychology, 41, 681–690. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-019-00593-3
IBM Corp. (2017). IBM SPSS Statistics for Macintosh (Version 25.0) [Computer software]. IBM Corp.
Dangelico, R. M., Nonino, F., & Pompei, A. (2021). Which are the determinants of green purchase behaviour? A study of Italian consumers. Business Strategy and the Environment, 30(5), 2600–2620. https://doi.org/10.1002/bse.2766
De Lessio-Parson, A. (2017). Doing vegetarianism to destabilize the meat-masculinity nexus in La Plata, Argentina. Gender, Place & Culture, 24(12), 1729–1748. https://doi.org/10.1080/0966369X.2017.1395822
De Backer, C., Dare, J., & Costello, L. (2019). To eat or not to eat meat: How vegetarian dietary choices influence our social lives. Rowman & Littlefield.
De Boer, J., Schösler, H., & Aiking, H. (2017). Towards a reduced meat diet: Mindset and motivation of young vegetarians, low, medium and high meat-eaters. Appetite, 113, 387–397. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2017.03.007
Everett, J. A. C., Caviola, L., Savulescu, J., & Faber, N. S. (2019). Speciesism, generalized prejudice, and perceptions of prejudiced others. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 22(6), 785–803. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430218816962
Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A.-G., & Buchner, A. (2007). G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39(2), 175–191. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193146
Fox, N., & Ward, K. (2008). Health, ethics and environment: A qualitative study of vegetarian motivations. Appetite, 50(2–3), 422–429. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2007.09.007
Gambert, I., & Linné, T. (2018). From rice eaters to soy boys: Race, gender, and tropes of ‘plant food masculinity’. Animal Studies Journal, 7(2), 129–179. https://ro.uow.edu.au/asj/vol7/iss2/8
Gautam, V. (2020). Examining environmental friendly behaviors of tourists towards sustainable development. Journal of Environmental Management, 276, 111292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.111292
Goffman, E. (1976). Gender display. In E. Goffman (Ed.), Gender advertisements (pp. 1–9). Macmillan Education UK. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-16079-2_1
Graça, J., Godinho, C. A., & Truninger, M. (2019). Reducing meat consumption and following plant-based diets: Current evidence and future directions to inform integrated transitions. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 91, 380–390. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2019.07.046
Greenebaum, J. B. (2012). Managing impressions: “Face-saving” strategies of vegetarians and vegans. Humanity & Society, 36(4), 309–325. https://doi.org/10.1177/0160597612458898
Greenebaum, J., & Dexter, B. (2018). Vegan men and hybrid masculinity. Journal of Gender Studies, 27(6), 637–648. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2017.1287064
Gross, S., Waldrop, M. E., & Roosen, J. (2021). How does animal welfare taste? Combining sensory and choice experiments to evaluate willingness to pay for animal welfare pork. Food Quality and Preference, 87, 104055. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2020.104055
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis: A global perspective. Pearson Education.
Haverstock, K., & Forgays, D. K. (2012). To eat or not to eat. A comparison of current and former animal product limiters. Appetite, 58(3), 1030–1036. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2012.02.048
He, F., Mazumdar, S., Tang, G., Bhatia, T., Anderson, S. J., Dew, M. A., Krafty, R., Nimgaonkar, V., Deshpande, S., Hall, M., & Reynolds, C. F. (2017). Nonparametric MANOVA approaches for non-normal multivariate outcomes with missing values. Communications in Statistics: Theory and Methods, 46(14), 7188–7200. https://doi.org/10.1080/03610926.2016.1146767
Hoffman, S. R., Stallings, S. F., Bessinger, R. C., & Brooks, G. T. (2013). Differences between health and ethical vegetarians. Strength of conviction, nutrition knowledge, dietary restriction, and duration of adherence. Appetite, 65, 139–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2013.02.009
Hopwood, C. J., Bleidorn, W., Schwaba, T., & Chen, S. (2020). Health, environmental, and animal rights motives for vegetarian eating. PLoS ONE, 15(4), e0230609. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0230609
Hopwood, C. J., Rosenfeld, D., Chen, S., & Bleidorn, W. (2021). An investigation of plant-based dietary motives among vegetarians and omnivores. Collabra: Psychology, 7(1), 19010. https://doi.org/10.1525/collabra.19010
Janssen, M., Busch, C., Rödiger, M., & Hamm, U. (2016). Motives of consumers following a vegan diet and their attitudes towards animal agriculture. Appetite, 105, 643–651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2016.06.039
Johnson, J. (2011). Hegans: An examination of the emerging male vegan [Unpublished master’s thesis, Minnesota State University]. Retrieved November 15, 2022, from https://cornerstone.lib.mnsu.edu/etds/124
Judge, M., & Wilson, M. S. (2019). A dual-process motivational model of attitudes towards vegetarians and vegans. European Journal of Social Psychology, 49(1), 169–178. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2386
Katz, B. M., & McSweeney, M. (1980). A multivariate Kruskal-Wallis test with post hoc procedures. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 15(3), 281–297. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr1503_4
Kerschke-Risch, P. (2015). Vegan diet: Motives, approach and duration. Initial results of a quantitative sociological study. Ernährungs Umschau, 62(6), 98–103. https://doi.org/10.4455/eu.2015.016
Killermann, S. (2017). Breaking through the binary. In S. Killermann (Ed.), A guide to gender: The social justice advocate’s handbook (2nd ed., pp. 52–175). Impetus Books.
Kim, D. Y., Lehto, X. Y., & Morrison, A. M. (2007). Gender differences in online travel information search: Implications for marketing communications on the internet. Tourism Management, 28(2), 423–433. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2006.04.001
Kirsten, H., Seib-Pfeifer, L. E., Lüth, C. A., & Rosenfeld, D. L. (2020). Validation and application of a German version of the Dietarian Identity Questionnaire: Revealing differences between omnivores, vegetarians, and vegans. Food Quality and Preference, 86, 103988. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2020.103988
Korthals, M. (2015). Ethics of food production and consumption. In R. J. Herring (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of food, politics, and society (Vol. 1, pp. 231–252). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195397772.013.022
Krahé, B. (2018). Gendered self-concept and the aggressive expression of driving anger: Positive femininity buffers negative masculinity. Sex Roles, 79(1), 98–108. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0853-9
Lei, S. I., Wang, D., & Law, R. (2021). Mobile-based value co-creation: Contextual factors towards customer experiences. Tourism Review. https://doi.org/10.1108/TR-10-2020-0504
Leiner, D. J. (2014). SoSci Survey. Retrieved November 15, 2022, from http://www.soscisurvey.com
Leitzmann, C. (2014). Vegetarian nutrition: Past, present, future. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 100(suppl_1), 496–502. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.113.071365
Luke, B. (2007). Brutal: Manhood and the exploitation of animals. University of Illinois Press.
MacInnis, C. C., & Hodson, G. (2021). Tensions within and between vegans and vegetarians: Meat-free motivations matter. Appetite, 164, 105246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2021.105246
Melzer, A., Hale, M.-L., & Hall, M. (2019). #LËTZSTEREOTYPE18-Geschlechterbezogene Rollen und Geschlechterstereotype bei Jugendlichen und jungen Erwachsenen in Luxemburg. [# LËTZSTEREOTYPE18-Gender roles and gender stereotypes among adolescents and young adults in Luxembourg]. Retrieved November 15, 2022, from http://hdl.handle.net/10993/38642
Michel, F., Hartmann, C., & Siegrist, M. (2021). Consumers’ associations, perceptions and acceptance of meat and plant-based meat alternatives. Food Quality and Preference, 87, 104063. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2020.104063
Morgenroth, T., & Ryan, M. K. (2018). Gender trouble in social psychology: How can Butler’s work inform experimental social psychologists’ conceptualization of gender? Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1320. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01320
Mycek, M. K. (2018). Meatless meals and masculinity: How veg* men explain their plant-based diets. Food and Foodways, 26(3), 223–245. https://doi.org/10.1080/07409710.2017.1420355
Nekmahmud, M., Ramkissoon, H., & Fekete-Farkas, M. (2022). Green purchase and sustainable consumption: A comparative study between European and non-European tourists. Tourism Management Perspectives, 43, 100980. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2022.100980
Nezlek, J. B., & Forestell, C. A. (2020). Vegetarianism as a social identity. Current Opinion in Food Science, 33, 45–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cofs.2019.12.005
Northstone, K., & Emmett, P. (2005). Multivariate analysis of diet in children at four and seven years of age and associations with socio-demographic characteristics. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 59(6), 751–760. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602136
O’Neil, J. M. (2008). Summarizing 25 years of research on men’s gender role conflict using the gender role conflict scale: New research paradigms and clinical implications. The Counseling Psychologist, 36(3), 358–445. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000008317057
Paslakis, G., Richardson, C., Nöhre, M., Brähler, E., Holzapfel, C., Hilbert, A., & de Zwaan, M. (2020). Prevalence and psychopathology of vegetarians and vegans – Results from a representative survey in Germany. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-63910-y
Pfeiler, T. M., & Egloff, B. (2018). Examining the “veggie” personality: Results from a representative German sample. Appetite, 120, 246–255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2017.09.005
Plante, C. N., Rosenfeld, D. L., Plante, M., & Reysen, S. (2019). The role of social identity motivation in dietary attitudes and behaviors among vegetarians. Appetite, 141, 104307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2019.05.038
Ploll, U., Petritz, H., & Stern, T. (2020). A social innovation perspective on dietary transitions: Diffusion of vegetarianism and veganism in Austria. Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions, 36, 164–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eist.2020.07.001
R Core Team. (2020). R : A language and environment for statistical computing (Version 3.6.3) [Computer software]. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. URL https://www.R-project.org/
Rachão, S. A. S., Breda, Z., Fernandes, C., & Joukes, V. (2020). Food-and-wine experiences towards co-creation in tourism. Tourism Review, 76(5), 1050–1066. https://doi.org/10.1108/TR-01-2019-0026
Ramkissoon, H., & Nunkoo, R. (2012). More than just biological sex differences: Examining the structural relationship between gender identity and information search behavior. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 36(2), 191–215. https://doi.org/10.1177/10963480103886
Ramkissoon, H., Smith, L. D. G., & Weiler, B. (2013). Testing the dimensionality of place attachment and its relationships with place satisfaction and pro-environmental behaviours: A structural equation modelling approach. Tourism Management, 36, 552–566. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2012.09.003
Rather, R. A., Hollebeek, L. D., & Rasoolimanesh, S. M. (2022). First-time versus repeat tourism customer engagement, experience, and value cocreation: An empirical investigation. Journal of Travel Research, 61(3), 549–564. https://doi.org/10.1177/00472875219975
Rodrigues, H., Goméz-Corona, C., & Valentin, D. (2020). Femininities & masculinities: Sex, gender, and stereotypes in food studies. Current Opinion in Food Science, 33, 156–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cofs.2020.05.002
Rosenfeld, D. L. (2018). The psychology of vegetarianism: Recent advances and future directions. Appetite, 131, 125–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2018.09.011
Rosenfeld, D. L. (2019a). Psychometric properties of the Dietarian Identity Questionnaire among vegetarians. Food Quality and Preference, 74, 135–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2019.01.020
Rosenfeld, D. L. (2019b). A comparison of dietarian identity profiles between vegetarians and vegans. Food Quality and Preference, 72, 40–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2018.09.008
Rosenfeld, D. L. (2019c). Why some choose the vegetarian option: Are all ethical motivations the same? Motivation and Emotion, 43(3), 400–411. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-018-9747-6
Rosenfeld, D. L. (2019d). Ethical motivation and vegetarian dieting: The underlying role of anti-speciesist attitudes. Anthrozoös, 32(6), 785–796. https://doi.org/10.1080/08927936.2019.1673048
Rosenfeld, D. L. (2020). Gender differences in vegetarian identity: How men and women construe meatless dieting. Food Quality and Preference, 81, 103859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2019.103859
Rosenfeld, D. L., & Burrow, A. L. (2017). Vegetarian on purpose: Understanding the motivations of plant-based dieters. Appetite, 116, 456–463. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2017.05.039
Rosenfeld, D. L., & Burrow, A. L. (2018). Development and validation of the Dietarian Identity Questionnaire: Assessing self-perceptions of animal-product consumption. Appetite, 127, 182–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2018.05.003
Rosenfeld, D. L., & Tomiyama, A. J. (2021). Gender differences in meat consumption and openness to vegetarianism. Appetite, 166, 105475. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2021.105475
Rothgerber, H. (2013). Real men don’t eat (vegetable) quiche: Masculinity and the justification of meat consumption. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 14(4), 363–375. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030379
Rozin, P., Markwith, M., & Stoess, C. (1997). Moralization and becoming a vegetarian: The transformation of preferences into values and the recruitment of disgust. Psychological Science, 8(2), 67–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1997.tb00685.x
Ruby, M. B. (2012). Vegetarianism. A Blossoming Field of Study. Appetite, 58(1), 141–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2011.09.019
Ruby, M. B., & Heine, S. J. (2011). Meat, morals, and masculinity. Appetite, 56(2), 447–450. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2011.01.018
Sheth, J. N., Newman, B. I., & Gross, B. L. (1991). Why we buy what we buy: A theory of consumption values. Journal of Business Research, 22(2), 159–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/0148-2963(91)90050-8
Shoukat, M. H., & Ramkissoon, H. (2022). Customer delight, engagement, experience, value co-creation, place identity, and revisit intention: A new conceptual framework. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 6, 757–775. https://doi.org/10.1080/19368623.2022.2062692
Smith, A. D., Emmett, P. M., Newby, P. K., & Northstone, K. (2011). A comparison of dietary patterns derived by cluster and principal components analysis in a UK cohort of children. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 65(10), 1102–1109. https://doi.org/10.1038/ejcn.2011.96
Sudkämper, A., Ryan, M. K., Kirby, T. A., & Morgenroth, T. (2020). A comprehensive measure of attitudes and behaviour: Development of the Support for Gender Equality among Men Scale. European Journal of Social Psychology, 50(2), 256–277. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2629
Thomas, M. A. (2016). Are vegans the same as vegetarians? The effect of diet on perceptions of masculinity. Appetite, 97, 79–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2015.11.021
Tibshirani, R., Walther, G., & Hastie, T. (2001). Estimating the number of clusters in a data set via the gap statistic. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series B (Statistical Methodology), 63(2), 411–423. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9868.00293
Tilman, D., & Clark, M. (2014). Global diets link environmental sustainability and human health. Nature, 515(7528), 518–522. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature13959
Troche, S. J., Weber, N., Hennigs, K., Andresen, C. R., & Rammsayer, T. H. (2007). The relationship of digit ratio (2D:4D) and gender-role orientation in four national samples. Journal of Individual Differences, 28(2), 78–87. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001.28.2.78
Twenge, J. M. (1997). Changes in masculine and feminine traits over time: A meta-analysis. Sex Roles, 36(5), 305–325. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02766650
Valdes, M., Conklin, A., Veenstra, G., & Black, J. L. (2020). Plant-based dietary practices in Canada: Examining definitions, prevalence and correlates of animal source food exclusions using nationally representative data from the 2015 Canadian Community Health Survey-Nutrition. Public Health Nutrition, 24(5), 777–786. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1368980020003444
Vartanian, L. R. (2015). Impression management and food intake. Current Directions in Research. Appetite, 86, 74–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2014.08.021
Wang, S., Wang, J., Wang, Y., Yan, J., & Li, J. (2018). Environmental knowledge and consumers’ intentions to visit green hotels: The mediating role of consumption values. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 35(9), 1261–1271. https://doi.org/10.1080/10548408.2018.1490234
West, C., & Zimmermann, D. H. (1987). Doing gender. Gender & Society, 1(2), 125–151. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243287001002002
Wester, S., Vogel, D., O’Neil, J., & Danforth, L. (2012). Development and evaluation of the Gender Role Conflict Scale Short Form (GRCS-SF). Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 13(2), 199–210. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025550
Willett, W., Rockström, J., Loken, B., Springmann, M., Lang, T., Vermeulen, S., Garnett, T., Tilman, D., DeClerck, F., Wood, A., Jonell, M., Clark, M., Gordon, L. J., Fanzo, J., Hawkes, C., Zurayk, R., Rivera, J. A., Vries, W. D., Sibanda, L. M., …, & Murray, C. J. L. (2019). Food in the anthropocene: The EAT–Lancet commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems. The Lancet, 393(10170), 447–492. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31788-4
Wood, W., Christensen, P. N., Hebl, M. R., & Rothgerber, H. (1997). Conformity to sex-typed norms, affect, and the self-concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(3), 523–535. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.73.3.523
Wynes, S., & Nicholas, K. A. (2017). The climate mitigation gap: Education and government recommendations miss the most effective individual actions. Environmental Research Letters, 12(7), 074024. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aa7541
Yuan, C., & Yang, H. (2019). Research on k-value selection method of k-means clustering algorithm. J—Multidisciplinary Scientific Journal, 2(2), 226–235. https://doi.org/10.3390/j2020016
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
K. K. carried out the literature review, the selection and implementation of the online survey, recruited participants, carried out the data analysis in SPSS and drafted the manuscript. P. S. carried out the cluster validation in R and provided guidance for the data analysis. A. M. and M. H. provided guidance regarding the selection of measures and the implementation of the online survey and data analysis. All authors were involved in reviewing and writing the final draft of the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.
Additional information
Publisher's note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Kakoschke, K.C., Hale, ML., Sischka, P.E. et al. Meatless masculinity: Examining profiles of male veg*n eating motives and their relation to gendered self-concepts. Curr Psychol 42, 29851–29867 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03998-9
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03998-9