Abstract
Urban agglomerations are the centers of carbon emissions. However, research on sector-specific carbon emissions in different urban agglomerations is still limited. Drawing on the data of China’s six urban agglomerations in 2005, 2010, and 2015, this study investigates the spatio-temporal patterns, regional inequalities, and driving forces of total, industrial, transportation, and residential carbon emissions. The study found that Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei was the total and sectoral emission center among the studied urban agglomerations. Additionally, regional carbon inequalities gradually decreased, implying a growing regional synergistic carbon pattern. The driving forces of carbon emissions, including population, GDP, energy intensity, secondary industry, tertiary industry, foreign investment, urbanization, and green coverage, varied across sectors and regions. Notably, foreign investment could lead to lower carbon emissions in less developed agglomerations like Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei, the Central Plains, and the middle reaches of the Yangtze River, whereas more developed agglomerations like the Yangtze River Delta and the Pearl River Delta benefited less from foreign investment. Besides, ChengYu has good ecological conditions and sustainable development modes, which linked urbanization and green space to reduced carbon emissions in the industrial sector. The findings can help formulate differentiated carbon policy and support sustainable development.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The data presented in this study are available upon request from the corresponding author.
References
Anser MK, Alharthi M, Aziz B, Wasim S (2020) Impact of urbanization, economic growth, and population size on residential carbon emissions in the SAARC countries. Clean Techn Environ Policy 22(4):923–936. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-020-01833-y
Bai Y, Deng X, Gibson J, Zhao Z, Xu H (2019) How does urbanization affect residential CO2 emissions? An analysis on urban agglomerations of China. J Clean Prod 209:876–885. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.10.248
Cao L, Deng F, Zhuo C, Jiang Y, Li Z, Xu H (2022) Spatial distribution patterns and influencing factors of China’s new energy vehicle industry. J Clean Prod 379(P2):134641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.134641
Chen J, Lian X, Su H, Zhang Z, Ma X, Chang B (2021) Analysis of China’s carbon emission driving factors based on the perspective of eight major economic regions. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28(7):8181–8204. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-11044-z
Chen J, Liu J, Qi J, Gao M, Cheng S, Li K, Xu C (2022) City- and county-level spatio-temporal energy consumption and efficiency datasets for China from 1997 to 2017. Sci Data 9(1):1–16. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-022-01240-6
Chen L, Xu L, Yang Z (2019) Inequality of industrial carbon emissions of the urban agglomeration and its peripheral cities: a case in the Pearl River Delta, China. Renew Sust Energ Rev 109:438–447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.04.010
Cui C, Cai B, Bin G, Wang Z (2020) Decennary spatial pattern changes and scaling effects of CO2 emissions of urban agglomerations in China. Cities 105:102818. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2020.102818
Dai L, Liu Y, Luo X (2021) Integrating the MCR and DOI models to construct an ecological security network for the urban agglomeration around Poyang Lake, China. Sci Total Environ 754:141868. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141868
Dhakal S (2010) GHG emissions from urbanization and opportunities for urban carbon mitigation. Curr Opin Environ Sustain 2(4):277–283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2010.05.007
Donglan Z, Dequn Z, Peng Z (2010) Driving forces of residential CO2 emissions in urban and rural China: an index decomposition analysis. Energy Policy 38(7):3377–3383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2010.02.011
Du X, Zhou J, Xiao C (2024) Spatial effects and influencing factors of urban sustainable development: an analysis of urban agglomerations in China. Econ Anal Policy 81:556–575. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eap.2023.12.022
Ehrlich PR, Holdren JP (1971) Impact of population growth. Science 171(3977):1212–1217. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.171.3977.1212
Feng JC, Zeng XL, Yu Z, Bian Y, Li WC, Wang Y (2019) Decoupling and driving forces of industrial carbon emission in a coastal city of Zhuhai, China. Energy Rep 5:1589–1602. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2019.10.027
Guo B, Geng Y, Franke B, Hao H, Liu Y, Chiu A (2014) Uncovering China’s transport CO2 emission patterns at the regional level. Energy Policy 74:134–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2014.08.005
Han F, Xie R, Lu Y, Fang J, Liu Y (2018) The effects of urban agglomeration economies on carbon emissions: evidence from Chinese cities. J Clean Prod 172:1096–1110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.09.273
Hashmi R, Alam K (2019) Dynamic relationship among environmental regulation, innovation, CO2 emissions, population, and economic growth in OECD countries: a panel investigation. J Clean Prod 231:1100–1109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.05.325
Hu H, Lv T, Zhang X, Fu S, Geng C, Li Z (2022) Spatiotemporal dynamics and decoupling mechanism of economic growth and carbon emissions in an urban agglomeration of China. Environ Monit Assess 194(9). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-022-10195-5
Hu H, Lv T, Zhang X, Xie H, Fu S, Geng C, Li Z (2023) Spatiotemporal heterogeneity and decoupling decomposition of industrial carbon emissions in the Yangtze River Delta urban agglomeration of China. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30(17):50412–50430. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-25794-z
Huang HJ, Xia T, Tian Q, Liu TL, Wang C, Li D (2020) Transportation issues in developing China’s urban agglomerations. Transp Policy 85:A1–A22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2019.09.007
Jiang J (2016) China’s urban residential carbon emission and energy efficiency policy. Energy 109:866–875. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2016.05.060
Lai S, Lu J, Luo X, Ge J (2022) Carbon emission evaluation model and carbon reduction strategies for newly urbanized areas. Sustain Prod Consum 31:13–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2022.01.026
Li H, Xiao Z (2022) Comparisons and predictions of intercity population migration propensity in major urban clusters in China: based on use of the Baidu index. China Popul Dev Stud 6(1):55–77. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42379-022-00103-2
Li L, Ma S, Zheng Y, Xiao X (2022) Integrated regional development: comparison of urban agglomeration policies in China. Land Use Policy 114:105939. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2021.105939
Liu D, Xiao B (2018) Can China achieve its carbon emission peaking? A scenario analysis based on STIRPAT and system dynamics model. Ecol Indic 93:647–657. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2018.05.049
Liu M, Wang H, Wang H, Oda T, Zhao Y, Yang X, Zang R, Zang B, Bi J, Chen J (2013) Refined estimate of China’s CO2 emissions in spatiotemporal distributions. Atmos Chem Phys 13(21):10873–10882. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-10873-2013
Luo G, Baležentis T, Zeng S (2023) Per capita CO2 emission inequality of China’s urban and rural residential energy consumption: a Kaya-Theil decomposition. J Environ Manag 331:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.117265
Lv T, Hu H, Zhang X, Xie H, Wang L, Fu S (2022) Spatial spillover effects of urbanization on carbon emissions in the Yangtze River Delta urban agglomeration, China. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29(23):33920–33934. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-17872-x
Ma L, Xiang L, Wang C, Chen N, Wang W (2022) Spatiotemporal evolution of urban carbon balance and its response to new-type urbanization: a case of the middle reaches of the Yangtze River Urban Agglomerations, China. J Clean Prod 380:135122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.135122
Ministry of Commerce of the People’s Republic of China (2023) Statistic bulletin of FDI in China. Ministry of Commerce of the People’s Republic of China Website. http://images.mofcom.gov.cn/wzs/202310/20231010105622259.pdf. Accessed 6 Jan 2024
Ouyang X, Lin B (2015) An analysis of the driving forces of energy-related carbon dioxide emissions in China’s industrial sector. Renew Sust Energ Rev 45:838–849. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.02.030
Poumanyvong P, Kaneko S (2010) Does urbanization lead to less energy use and lower CO2 emissions? A cross-country analysis. Ecol Econ 70(2):434–444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2010.09.029
Qian Y, Wang H, Wu J (2022) Spatiotemporal association of carbon dioxide emissions in China’s urban agglomerations. J Environ Manag 323:116109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.116109
Ren W, Xue B, Geng Y, Lu C, Zhang Y, Zhang L, Fujita T, Hao H (2016) Inter-city passenger transport in larger urban agglomeration area: emissions and health impacts. J Clean Prod 114:412–419. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.03.102
Shen W, Liang H, Dong L, Ren J, Wang G (2021) Synergistic CO2 reduction effects in Chinese urban agglomerations: perspectives from social network analysis. Sci Total Environ 798:149352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149352
Tan S, Zhang M, Wang A, Zhang X, Chen T (2021) How do varying socio-economic driving forces affect China’s carbon emissions? New evidence from a multiscale geographically weighted regression model. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28(30):41242–41254. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-13444-1
Wang C, Wang F, Zhang X, Yang Y, Su Y, Ye Y, Zhang H (2017) Examining the driving factors of energy related carbon emissions using the extended STIRPAT model based on IPAT identity in Xinjiang. Renew Sust Energ Rev 67:51–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.09.006
Wang F, Fan W, Liu J, Wang G, Chai W (2020) The effect of urbanization and spatial agglomeration on carbon emissions in urban agglomeration. Environ Sci Pollut Res 27(19):24329–24341. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-08597-4
Wang Y, Niu Y, Li M, Yu Q, Chen W (2022) Spatial structure and carbon emission of urban agglomerations: spatiotemporal characteristics and driving forces. Sustain Cities Soc 78:103600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2021.103600
Wei T, Zhou J, Zhang H (2019) Rebound effect of energy intensity reduction on energy consumption. Resour Conserv Recycl 144:233–239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2019.01.012
Wu S, Hu S, Frazier AE, Hu Z (2023) China’s urban and rural residential carbon emissions: past and future scenarios. Resour Conserv Recycl 190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2022.106802
Wu Y, Yang Z, Lin B, Liu H, Wang R, Zhou B, Hao J (2012) Energy consumption and CO2 emission impacts of vehicle electrification in three developed regions of China. Energy Policy 48:537–550. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2012.05.060
Xu C, Wang B, Chen J, Shen Z, Song M, An J (2022) Carbon inequality in China: novel drivers and policy driven scenario analysis. Energy Policy 170:113259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2022.113259
Xu G, Lv Y, Sun H, Wu J, Yang Z (2021) Mobility and evaluation of intercity freight CO2 emissions in an urban agglomeration. Transp Res Part D: Transp Environ 91:102674. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2020.102674
Yang X, Jia Z, Yang Z, Yuan X (2021) The effects of technological factors on carbon emissions from various sectors in China—a spatial perspective. J Clean Prod 301:126949. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126949
Yu Q, Li M, Li Q, Wang Y, Chen W (2022) Economic agglomeration and emissions reduction: does high agglomeration in China’s urban clusters lead to higher carbon intensity? Urban Clim 43(3):101174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2022.101174
Yu X, Liang Z, Fan J, Zhang J, Luo Y, Zhu X (2021) Spatial decomposition of city-level CO2 emission changes in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei. J Clean Prod 296:126613. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126613
Yu X, Wu Z, Zheng H, Li M, Tan T (2020) How urban agglomeration improve the emission efficiency? A spatial econometric analysis of the Yangtze River Delta urban agglomeration in China. J Environ Manag 260:110061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.110061
Zeng H, Shao B, Bian G, Dai H, Zhou F (2022) Analysis of influencing factors and trend forecast of CO2 emission in Chengdu-Chongqing urban agglomeration. Sustainability (Switzerland) 14(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/su14031167
Zhang B, Xie G, Gao J, Yang Y (2014) The cooling effect of urban green spaces as a contribution to energy-saving and emission-reduction: a case study in Beijing, China. Build Environ 76:37–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2014.03.003
Zhang Y, Yu Z, Zhang J (2022) Research on carbon emission differences decomposition and spatial heterogeneity pattern of China’s eight economic regions. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29(20):29976–29992. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-17935-z
Zhao J, Ji G, Yue YL, Lai Z, Chen Y, Yang D, Yang X, Wang Z (2019) Spatio-temporal dynamics of urban residential CO2 emissions and their driving forces in China using the integrated two nighttime light datasets. Appl Energy 235:612–624. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.09.180
Zhao X, Zhu J (2022) Impacts of two-way foreign direct investment on carbon emissions: from the perspective of environmental regulation. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29(35):52705–52723. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-19598-w
Zhu H, Duan L, Guo Y, Yu K (2016) The effects of FDI, economic growth and energy consumption on carbon emissions in ASEAN-5: evidence from panel quantile regression. Econ Model 58:237–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2016.05.003
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Data analysis and original draft writing were performed by Yunzheng Zhang. Material preparation, data collection, and editing were performed by Fubin Luo. All authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval
Not applicable.
Consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: V.V.S.S. Sarma
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Zhang, Y., Luo, F. Carbon emissions in China’s urban agglomerations: spatio-temporal patterns, regional inequalities, and driving forces. Environ Sci Pollut Res 31, 22528–22546 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-32573-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-32573-x