Abstract
The prime objective of the current research work was to understand the role of microwave-assisted pyrolysis for the upgradation of expanded polystyrene (EPS) waste into valuable aromatic hydrocarbons. Ethyl acetate solvent was used to dissolve the EPS to enhance the homogeneous dispersion of EPS with susceptor particles. Biochar obtained from the pyrolysis was used as a susceptor. The design of experiments method was used to understand the role of microwave power (300 W, 450 W, and 600 W) and susceptor quantity (5 g, 10 g, and 15 g) in the pyrolysis process. The pyrolysis was conducted till the temperature reached up to 600 °C, and this temperature was achieved in the time interval of 14–38 min based on the experimental conditions. The obtained average heating rates varied in the range of 15 to 41 °C/min to attain the pyrolysis temperature. The EPS feed was converted into char (~ 2.5 wt.%), oil (51 to 60 wt.%), and gaseous (37 to 47 wt.%) products. The specific microwave energy (J/g) was calculated to know the energy requirement; it increased with an increase in susceptor quantity and microwave power, whereas specific microwave power (W/g) was a function of microwave power and increased from 15 to 30 W/g. The predicted values calculated using the model equations closely matched the actual values showing that the developed model equations via optimization had a good fit. The obtained pyrolysis oil physicochemical properties including viscosity (1 to 1.4 cP), density (990 to 1030 kg/m3), heating value (39 to 42 MJ/kg), and flash point (98 to 101 °C) were thoroughly analyzed. The pyrolysis oil was rich in aromatic hydrocarbons and it was predominantly composed of styrene, cyclopropyl methylbenzene, and alkylbenzene derivates.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
Data and materials would be provided on request.
References
Alam M, Bhavanam A, Jana A et al (2020) Co-pyrolysis of bamboo sawdust and plastic: synergistic effects and kinetics. Renew Energy 149:1133–1145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.10.103
Al-Salem SM, Antelava A, Constantinou A et al (2017) A review on thermal and catalytic pyrolysis of plastic solid waste (PSW). J Environ Manage 197:177–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.03.084
Arafat Hossain M, Ganesan P, Jewaratnam J, Chinna K (2017) Optimization of process parameters for microwave pyrolysis of oil palm fiber (OPF) for hydrogen and biochar production. Energy Convers Manag 133:349–362. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2016.10.046
Auti SM, Rathod WS (2021) Effect of hybrid blends of raw tyre pyrolysis oil, karanja biodiesel and diesel fuel on single cylinder four stokes diesel engine. Energy Rep 7:2214–2220. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EGYR.2021.04.007
Bartoli M, Rosi L, Frediani M et al (2015) Depolymerization of polystyrene at reduced pressure through a microwave assisted pyrolysis. J Anal Appl Pyrolysis 113:281–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2015.01.026
Bhattacharya M, Basak T (2016) A review on the susceptor assisted microwave processing of materials. Energy 97:306–338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2015.11.034
Bhattacharya M, Basak T (2017) Susceptor-assisted enhanced microwave processing of ceramics - a review. Crit Rev Solid State Mater Sci 42:433–469. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408436.2016.1192987
Borges FC, Du Z, Xie Q et al (2014) Fast microwave assisted pyrolysis of biomass using microwave absorbent. Bioresour Technol 156:267–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2014.01.038
Chen L, Mi B, He J et al (2023) Functionalized biochars with highly-efficient malachite green adsorption property produced from banana peels via microwave-assisted pyrolysis. Bioresour Technol 376:128840. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.BIORTECH.2023.128840
Du Z, Li Y, Wang X et al (2011) Microwave-assisted pyrolysis of microalgae for biofuel production. Bioresour Technol 102:4890–4896. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2011.01.055
Duan Y, Yuan P, Huang S et al (2023) Experimental study on reactor scale-up for microwave-assisted pyrolysis of methyl ricinoleate. Chem Eng Process - Process Intensif 184:109293. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CEP.2023.109293
Fan S, Zhang Y, Cui L et al (2023) Cleaner production of aviation oil from microwave-assisted pyrolysis of plastic wastes. J Clean Prod 390:136102. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2023.136102
Garcia-Nunez JA, Pelaez-Samaniego MR, Garcia-Perez ME et al (2017) Historical developments of pyrolysis reactors: a review. Energy Fuels 31. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.7b00641
Hidalgo-Crespo J, Moreira CM, Jervis FX et al (2022) Circular economy of expanded polystyrene container production: environmental benefits of household waste recycling considering renewable energies. Energy Rep 8:306–311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2022.01.071
Hu X, Ma D, Zhang G et al (2023) Microwave-assisted pyrolysis of waste plastics for their resource reuse: a technical review. Carbon Resour Convers. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRCON.2023.03.002
Hussain Z, Khan KM, Perveen S et al (2012) The conversion of waste polystyrene into useful hydrocarbons by microwave-metal interaction pyrolysis. Fuel Process Technol 94:145–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2011.10.009
Karaduman A, Şimşek EH, Çiçek B, Bilgesü AY (2001) Flash pyrolysis of polystyrene wastes in a free-fall reactor under vacuum. J Anal Appl Pyrolysis 60:179–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-2370(00)00169-8
Kumar A, Samadder SR (2017) A review on technological options of waste to energy for effective management of municipal solid waste. Waste Manag 69:407–422. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2017.08.046
Lam SS, Chase HA (2012) A review on waste to energy processes using microwave pyrolysis. Energies 5:4209–4232. https://doi.org/10.3390/en5104209
Lam SS, Wan Mahari WA, Ok YS et al (2019) Microwave vacuum pyrolysis of waste plastic and used cooking oil for simultaneous waste reduction and sustainable energy conversion: recovery of cleaner liquid fuel and techno-economic analysis. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 115:109359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.109359
Leclerc P, Doucet J, Chaouki J (2018) Development of a microwave thermogravimetric analyzer and its application on polystyrene microwave pyrolysis kinetics. J Anal Appl Pyrolysis 130:249–255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2018.01.008
Li XY, Yan J, Yang H et al (2011) Study on processing technology for microwave pyrolysis of municipal solid waste. ICMREE2011 - Proc 2011 Int Conf Mater Renew Energy Environ 1:336–340. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICMREE.2011.5930825
Lombardi L, Carnevale E, Corti A (2015) A review of technologies and performances of thermal treatment systems for energy recovery from waste. Waste Manag 37:26–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2014.11.010
Lu JS, Chang Y, Poon CS, Lee DJ (2020) Slow pyrolysis of municipal solid waste (MSW): a review. Bioresour Technol 312:123615. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2020.123615
Miandad R, Nizami AS, Rehan M et al (2016) Influence of temperature and reaction time on the conversion of polystyrene waste to pyrolysis liquid oil. Waste Manag 58:250–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.09.023
Mohamed BA, Kim CS, Ellis N, Bi X (2016) Microwave-assisted catalytic pyrolysis of switchgrass for improving bio-oil and biochar properties. Bioresour Technol 201:121–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2015.10.096
Mutsengerere S, Chihobo CH, Musademba D, Nhapi I (2019) A review of operating parameters affecting bio-oil yield in microwave pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 104:328–336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.01.030
Nabi MN, Hussam WK, Afroz HMM et al (2022) Investigation of engine performance, combustion, and emissions using waste tire oil-diesel-glycine max biodiesel blends in a diesel engine. Case Stud Therm Eng 39:102435. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CSITE.2022.102435
Oh DY, Kim D, Choi H, Park KY (2023) Syngas generation from different types of sewage sludge using microwave-assisted pyrolysis with silicon carbide as the absorbent. Heliyon 9:e14165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e14165
Ohta K, Nishizawa T, Nishiguchi T et al (2014) Synthesis of carbon nanotubes by microwave heating: influence of diameter of catalytic Ni nanoparticles on diameter of CNTs. J Mater Chem A 2:2773–2780. https://doi.org/10.1039/c3ta13297h
Ojha DK, Vinu R (2015) Resource recovery via catalytic fast pyrolysis of polystyrene using zeolites. J Anal Appl Pyrolysis 113:349–359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2015.02.024
Olalo JA (2022) Pyrolytic oil yield from waste plastic in Quezon City, Philippines: optimization using response surface methodology. Int J Renew Energy Dev 11:325–332. https://doi.org/10.14710/ijred.2022.41457
Pianroj Y, Jumrat S, Werapun W et al (2016) Scaled-up reactor for microwave induced pyrolysis of oil palm shell. Chem Eng Process Process Intensif 106:42–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cep.2016.05.003
Prathiba R, Shruthi M, Miranda LR (2018) Pyrolysis of polystyrene waste in the presence of activated carbon in conventional and microwave heating using modified thermocouple. Waste Manag 76:528–536. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2018.03.029
Reddy BR, Ashok I, Vinu R (2020) Preparation of carbon nanostructures from medium and high ash Indian coals via microwave-assisted pyrolysis. Adv Powder Technol 31:1229–1240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apt.2019.12.017
Reddy BR, Sridevi V, Kumar TH et al (2022) Synthesis of renewable carbon biorefinery products from susceptor enhanced microwave-assisted pyrolysis of agro-residual waste: a review. Process Saf Environ Prot 164:354–372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2022.06.027
Reddy BR, Malhotra A, Najmi S et al (2022) Microwave assisted heating of plastic waste: effect of plastic/susceptor (SiC) contacting patterns. Chem Eng Process - Process Intensif 109202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cep.2022.109202
Reddy BR, Sarkar S, Vinu R (2023) Microwave-assisted rapid pyrolysis of woodblock without adding susceptor and detailed product analysis. Biomass Convers Biorefinery. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-023-03820-x
Ren S, Lei H, Wang L et al (2012) Biofuel production and kinetics analysis for microwave pyrolysis of Douglas fir sawdust pellet. J Anal Appl Pyrolysis 94:163–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2011.12.004
Rex P, Masilamani IP, Miranda LR (2020) Microwave pyrolysis of polystyrene and polypropylene mixtures using different activated carbon from biomass. J Energy Inst 93:1819–1832. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2020.03.013
Rex P, Masilamani IP, Miranda LR (2020) Microwave pyrolysis of polystyrene and polypropylene mixtures using different activated carbon from biomass. J Energy Inst. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joei.2020.03.013
Salema AA, Ani FN, Mouris J, Hutcheon R (2017) Microwave dielectric properties of Malaysian palm oil and agricultural industrial biomass and biochar during pyrolysis process. Fuel Process Technol 166:164–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2017.06.006
Suriapparao DV, Tejasvi R (2022) A review on role of process parameters on pyrolysis of biomass and plastics: present scope and future opportunities in conventional and microwave-assisted pyrolysis technologies. Process Saf Environ Prot 162:435–462. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2022.04.024
Suriapparao DV, Vinu R (2015) Bio-oil production via catalytic microwave pyrolysis of model municipal solid waste component mixtures. RSC Adv 5:57619–57631. https://doi.org/10.1039/c5ra08666c
Suriapparao DV, Vinu R (2015) Resource recovery from synthetic polymers via microwave pyrolysis using different susceptors. J Anal Appl Pyrolysis 113:701–712. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2015.04.021
Suriapparao DV, Batchu SP, Jayasurya S, Vinu R (2018) Selective production of phenolics from waste printed circuit boards via microwave assisted pyrolysis. J Clean Prod 197:525–533. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.06.203
Suriapparao DV, Boruah B, Raja D, Vinu R (2018) Microwave assisted co-pyrolysis of biomasses with polypropylene and polystyrene for high quality bio-oil production. Fuel Process Technol 175:64–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2018.02.019
Suriapparao DV, Vinu R, Shukla A, Haldar S (2020) Effective deoxygenation for the production of liquid biofuels via microwave assisted co-pyrolysis of agro residues and waste plastics combined with catalytic upgradation. Bioresour Technol 302:122775. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2020.122775
Suriapparao DV, Yerrayya A, Nagababu G et al (2020) Recovery of renewable aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbon resources from microwave pyrolysis/co-pyrolysis of agro-residues and plastics wastes. Bioresour Technol 318:124277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2020.124277
Suriapparao DV, Nagababu G, Yerrayya A, Sridevi V (2021) Optimization of microwave power and graphite susceptor quantity for waste polypropylene microwave pyrolysis. Process Saf Environ Prot 149:234–243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2020.10.055
Suriapparao DV, Kumar H, Rajasekhar B (2022) Review article A review on the role of susceptors in the recovery of valuable renewable carbon products from microwave-assisted pyrolysis of lignocellulosic and algal biomasses : prospects and challenges. Environ Res 215:114378. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2022.114378
Suriapparao DV, Reddy BR, Rao CS et al (2023) Prosopis juliflora valorization via microwave-assisted pyrolysis: optimization of reaction parameters using machine learning analysis. J Anal Appl Pyrolysis 169:105811. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2022.105811
Terapalli A, Kamireddi D, Sridevi V et al (2022) Microwave-assisted in-situ catalytic pyrolysis of polystyrene: analysis of product formation and energy consumption using machine learning approach. Process Saf Environ Prot 166:57–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2022.08.016
Undri A, Frediani M, Rosi L, Frediani P (2014) Reverse polymerization of waste polystyrene through microwave assisted pyrolysis. J Anal Appl Pyrolysis 105:35–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2013.10.001
Undri A, Rosi L, Frediani M, Frediani P (2014) Fuel from microwave assisted pyrolysis of waste multilayer packaging beverage. Fuel 133:7–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2014.04.092
Yin C (2012) Microwave-assisted pyrolysis of biomass for liquid biofuels production. Bioresour Technol 120:273–284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2012.06.016
Zhang Y, Chen G, Wang L et al (2020) Microwave-assisted pyrolysis of low-rank coal with K2CO3, CaCl2, and FeSO4 catalysts. ACS Omega 5:17232–17241. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.0c01400
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Dadi Venkata Surya: conceptualization, data curation, methodology, formal analysis, investigation, writing—original draft, and validation; Tanneru Hemanth Kumar: writing—original draft and investigation; Tanmay Basak: writing—original draft and investigation; Neelancherry Remya: writing—original draft and investigation; Busigari Rajasekhar Reddy: writing—original draft and investigation; Gurrala Pavan Kumar: writing—original draft and investigation; Swapnil Dharaskar: writing—original draft and investigation; Kevin Kachhadiya: conducting experiments and analysis; Dhruv Patel: conducting experiments and analysis; Gajera Jalpa Vijaybhai: conducting experiments and analysis; Payal Raghuvanshi: conducting experiments and analysis.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval
Not applicable.
Consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Guilherme L. Dotto
Publisher's note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Kachhadiya, K., Patel, D., Vijaybhai, G.J. et al. Conversion of waste polystyrene into valuable aromatic hydrocarbons via microwave-assisted pyrolysis. Environ Sci Pollut Res (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-28294-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-28294-2