Abstract
The concentrations and profiles of 18 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in particulate matter (PM10), fly ash (FA), and bottom ash (BA) were examined in three incineration residues. Samples were collected from different municipal and industrial solid waste incinerators in Northern Vietnam. The average concentrations of total PAHs in PM10, fly ash, and bottom ash were 9.55 × 103 ng/Nm3, 215 × 103 ng/g, and 2.38 ng/g, respectively. Low-molecular-weight PAHs (2 to 3 rings) were predominant in most samples. The emission factor of total PAHs decreased in the order of FA > BA > PM10. A higher concentration of total PAHs was found in industrial facilities than that in municipal ones. The high carcinogenic proportion of PAHs together with significantly high annual emissions reflect the high pollution risk to the ecosystem by PAHs in the case of reuse of incineration ashes (e.g., brick production). Regarding the carcinogenic risk of PAH-bounded ashes or particles, calculations from this study imply the significant threat for workers who have been manipulated in the incineration facilities, directly exposed to fly and bottom ashes. Meanwhile, the risk from PAH-bound particulate was not considered a significant threat for both normal adults and children. Further study on PAHs contained in incinerator waste dumps should be conducted in Vietnam to assess the potential contamination risk of these incineration by-products.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this article.
References
Anh HQ, Tran TM, Thu Thuy NT, Minh TB, Takahashi S (2019a) Screening analysis of organic micro-pollutants in road dusts from some areas in northern Vietnam: a preliminary investigation on contamination status, potential sources, human exposure, and ecological risk. Chemosphere 224:428–436. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.02.177
Anh HQ, Tue NM, Tuyen LH, Minh TB, Viet PH, Takahashi S (2019b) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and their methylated derivatives in settled dusts from end-of-life vehicle processing, urban, and rural areas, northern Vietnam: occurrence, source apportionment, and risk assessment. Sci Total Environ 672:468–478. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.04.018
Anh MT, Triet LM, Sauvain JJ, Tarradellas J (1999) PAH contamination levels in air particles and sediments of Ho Chi Minh City, vietnam. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 63(6):728–735. https://doi.org/10.1007/s001289901040
Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (1999) Canadian soil quality guidelines for the protection of environmental and human health. Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, Winnipeg
Chen Y, Zhao R, Xue J, Li J (2013) Generation and distribution of PAHs in the process of medical waste incineration. Waste Manage 33(5):1165–1173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2013.01.011
Dugenest S, Casabianca H, Grenier-Loustalot F, M. (1999) Municipal solid waste incineration bottom ash: physicochemical characterization of organic matter. Analusis 27(1):75–80. https://doi.org/10.1051/analusis:1999110
EPA Method 201a (2020) Method 201A: Determination of PM10 and PM2.5 Emissions from Stationary Sources (Constant Sampling Rate Procedure). https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2019-08/documents/method_201a_0.pdf. Accessed 16 Jan 2022
EPA U (1991) Risk-assessment guidance for superfund. Volume 1. Human health evaluation manual (Part B). Fact sheet. https://www.osti.gov/biblio/5364344. Accessed 23 Dec 2021
Ferronato N, Torretta V (2019) Waste mismanagement in developing countries: a review of global issues. In International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (Vol. 16, Issue 6). MDPI AG. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16061060
Goudarzi G, Baboli Z, Moslemnia M, Tobekhak M, Tahmasebi Birgani Y, Neisi A, Ghanemi K, Babaei AA, Hashemzadeh B, Ahmadi Angali K, Dobaradaran S, Ramezani Z, Hassanvand MS, Dehdari Rad H, Kayedi N (2021) Assessment of incremental lifetime cancer risks of ambient air PM10-bound PAHs in oil-rich cities of Iran. J Environ Health Sci Eng 19(1):319–330. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40201-020-00605-6
Hien TT, Thanh LT, Kameda T, Takenaka N, Bandow H (2007) Distribution characteristics of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons with particle size in urban aerosols at the roadside in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. Atmos Environ 41(8):1575–1586. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2006.10.045
Hoang AQ, Takahashi S, da Le N et al (2021) Unsubstituted and methylated PAHs in surface sediment of urban rivers in the Red River Delta (Hanoi, Vietnam): concentrations, profiles, sources, and ecological risk assessment. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-021-03174-y
Hsu WT, Liu MC, Hung PC, Chang SH, Chang MB (2016) PAH emissions from coal combustion and waste incineration. J Hazard Mater 318:32–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2016.06.038
Johansson I, van Bavel B (2003a) Levels and patterns of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in incineration ashes. Sci Total Environ 311(1–3):221–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-9697(03)00168-2
Johansson I, van Bavel B (2003b) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in weathered bottom ash from incineration of municipal solid waste. Chemosphere 53(2):123–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0045-6535(03)00299-6
Li H, Liu G, Cao Y (2015) Levels and environmental impact of PAHs and trace element in fly ash from a miscellaneous solid waste by rotary kiln incinerator, China. Nat Hazards 76(2):811–822. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-014-1520-x
Li HY, Gao PP, Ni HG (2019) Emission characteristics of parent and halogenated PAHs in simulated municipal solid waste incineration. Sci Total Environ 665:11–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.02.002
Liu J, Wang Y, Li PH, Shou YP, Li T, Yang MM, Wang L, Yue JJ, Yi XL, Guo LQ (2017) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) at high mountain site in North China: concentration, source and health risk assessment. Aerosol Air Qual Res 17(11):2867–2877. https://doi.org/10.4209/AAQR.2017.08.0288
Lopez Barrera E, Hertel T (2021) Global food waste across the income spectrum: implications for food prices, production and resource use. Food Policy 98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2020.101874
Ma J, Horii Y, Cheng J, Wang W, Wu Q, Ohura T, Kannan K (2009) Chlorinated and parent polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in environmental samples from an electronic waste recycling facility and a chemical industrial complex in China. Environ Sci Technol 43(3):643–649. https://doi.org/10.1021/es802878w
Ma Y, Harrad S (2015) Spatiotemporal analysis and human exposure assessment on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in indoor air, settled house dust, and diet: a review. In Environment International (Vol. 84, pp. 7–16). Elsevier Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2015.07.006
Masto RE, Sarkar E, George J, Jyoti K, Dutta P, Ram LC (2015) PAHs and potentially toxic elements in the fly ash and bed ash of biomass fired power plants. Fuel Process Technol 132:139–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2014.12.036
McKay G (2002) Dioxin characterisation, formation and minimisation during municipal solid waste (MSW) incineration: review. Chem Eng J 86(3):343–368. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1385-8947(01)00228-5
Mininni G, Sbrilli A, Braguglia CM et al (2007) Dioxins, furans and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons emissions from a hospital and cemetery waste incinerator. Atmos Environ 41:8527–8536. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.07.015
National Atmospheric Emissions Inventory (NAEI) (2013) UK Informative Inventory Report (1980 to 2011). https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/assets/documents/reports/cat07/1303261254_UK_IIR_2013_Final.pdf. Accessed 8 Nov 2021
Nguyen TTT, Hoang AQ, Nguyen VD, Nguyen HT, van Vu T, Vuong XT, Tu MB (2020) Concentrations, profiles, emission inventory, and risk assessment of chlorinated benzenes in bottom ash and fly ash of municipal and medical waste incinerators in northern Vietnam. Environ Sci Pollut Res. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-11385-9
Nie Z, Yang Y, Tang Z et al (2014) Estimation and characterization of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from magnesium metallurgy facilities in China. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 21:12629–12637. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-3133-z
Nisbet ICT, LaGoy PK (1992) Toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 16(3):290–300. https://doi.org/10.1016/0273-2300(92)90009-X
di Palo C, de Stefanis P, Massa M, Montani R (1996) Emission of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) from solid waste incinerator equipped with an after-combustion chamber. Polycyclic Aromat Compd 9(1–4):45–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/10406639608031200
Peng N, Li Y, Liu Z, Liu T, Gai C (2016a) Emission, distribution and toxicity of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) during municipal solid waste (MSW) and coal co-combustion. Sci Total Environ 565:1201–1207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.05.188
Peng N, Liu Z, Liu T, Gai C (2016b) Emissions of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) during hydrothermally treated municipal solid waste combustion for energy generation. Appl Energy 184:396–403. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.10.028
Sharma R, Sharma M, Sharma R, Sharma V (2013) The impact of incinerators on human health and environment. Rev Environ Health 28(1):67–72. https://doi.org/10.1515/reveh-2012-0035
Shen C, Tang X, Yao J, Shi D, Fang J, Khan MI, Cheema SA, Chen Y (2010) Levels and patterns of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and polychlorinated biphenyls in municipal waste incinerator bottom ash in Zhejiang province, China. J Hazard Mater 179(1–3):197–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.02.079
Shen H, Huang Y, Wang R, Zhu D, Li W, Shen G, Wang B, Zhang Y, Chen Y, Lu Y, Chen H, Li T, Sun K, Li B, Liu W, Liu J, Tao S (2013) Global atmospheric emissions of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from 1960 to 2008 and future predictions. Environ Sci Technol 47(12):6415–6424. https://doi.org/10.1021/es400857z
Soltani N, Keshavarzi B, Moore F, Tavakol T, Lahijanzadeh AR, Jaafarzadeh N, Kermani M (2015) Ecological and human health hazards of heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in road dust of Isfahan metropolis, Iran. Sci Total Environ 505:712–723. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.09.097
Srogi K (2007) Monitoring of environmental exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: a review. Environ Chem Lett 5(4):169–195. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-007-0095-0
Stogiannidis E, Laane R (2015) Source characterization of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by using their molecular indices: an overview of possibilities. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol 234:49–133. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-10638-0_2
Tuyen LH, Tue NM, Suzuki G, Misaki K, Viet PH, Takahashi S, Tanabe S (2014) Aryl hydrocarbon receptor mediated activities in road dust from a metropolitan area, Hanoi-Vietnam: contribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and human risk assessment. Sci Total Environ 491–492:246–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.01.086
van Caneghem J, Block C, Vandecasteele C (2010) Assessment of the impact on human health of industrial emissions to air: does the result depend on the applied method? J Hazard Mater 184:788–797. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.08.110
van Caneghem J, Vandecasteele C (2014) Characterisation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in flue gas and residues of a full scale fluidized bed combustor combusting non-hazardous industrial waste. Waste Manage 34(11):2407–2413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2014.06.001
Vane CH, Harrison I, Kim AW (2007) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in sediments from the Mersey Estuary U.K. Sci Total Environ 374(1):112–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2006.12.036
Verma SK, Masto RE, Gautam S, Choudhury DP, Ram LC, Maiti SK, Maity S (2015) Investigations on PAHs and trace elements in coal and its combustion residues from a power plant. Fuel 162:138–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.09.005
Vu-Duc N, Phung Thi LA, Le-Minh T, Nguyen L-A, Nguyen-Thi H, Pham-Thi L-H, Doan-Thi V-A, Le-Quang H, Nguyen-Xuan H, Thi Nguyen T, Nguyen PT, Chu DB (2021) Analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon in airborne particulate matter samples by gas chromatography in combination with tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS). J Anal Methods Chem 2021:6641326. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6641326
Wang Q, Miyake Y, Tokumura M, Amagai T, Horii Y, Nojiri K, Ohtsuka N (2018) Effects of characteristics of waste incinerator on emission rate of halogenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon into environments. Sci Total Environ 625:633–639. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.12.323
Wilhelm J, Stieglitz L, Dinjus E, Will R (2001) Mechanistic studies on the role of PAHs and related compounds in PCDD/F formation on model fly ashes. Chemosphere 42(5–7):797–802. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0045-6535(00)00253-8
Yang H, Al E (1999) PAH emission from various industrial stack. Fuel Energy Abstr 40(1):76. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6701(99)93035-7
Yang Q, Chen H, Li B (2015) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in indoor dusts of guizhou, southwest of china: status, sources and potential human health risk. PLoS ONE 10(2):1–17. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0118141
Zhao L, Zhang FS, Chen M, Liu Z, Wu DBJ (2010) Typical pollutants in bottom ashes from a typical medical waste incinerator. J Hazard Mater 173(1–3):181–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.08.066
Zhao L, Zhang FS, Hao Z, Wang H (2008) Levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in different types of hospital waste incinerator ashes. Sci Total Environ 397(1–3):24–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.02.040
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the researchers and technicians of Department of Environmental Technology, IET, VAST for their insightful comment and encouragement. Long Hai Pham and Tu Van Vu are thanked for the technical supports.
Funding
The authors acknowledge the funding support from the National Foundation for Science and Technology Development (NAFOSTED) for the project code 104.04–2019.332.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection, and analysis were performed by Hue Thi Nguyen, Viet Quoc Pham, Thi Phuong Mai Nguyen, and Phuong Thu Le. Further discussion related to environmental impact and health risk assessment was proposed and conducted by Binh Minh Tu and Thuy Thi Thu Nguyen. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Hue Thi Nguyen and Viet Quoc Pham, and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical approval
Not applicable.
Consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Gerhard Lammel
Publisher's note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Nguyen, H.T., Pham, V.Q., Nguyen, T.P.M. et al. Emission and distribution profiles of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in solid residues of municipal and industrial waste incinerators, Northern Vietnam. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30, 38255–38268 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-24680-4
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-24680-4