Abstract
Understanding how groundwater is formed and evolves is critical for water resource exploitation and utilization. In this study, hydrochemistry and stable isotope tracing techniques were adopted to determine the key factors influencing groundwater chemical evolution in Feng County. A total of fourteen wells and five surface water samples were investigated in November 2021. The δD and δ18O compositions show that both surface water and groundwater are recharged from atmospheric precipitation. The dominating order of cations and anions in groundwater appears to be Na+ > Mg2+ > Ca2+ > K+ and HCO3− > SO42− > Cl− > NO3− > F−, respectively. The groundwater hydrochemical facies are mainly characterized by HCO3-Ca-Mg and SO4-Cl-Na types. The chemical evolution of groundwater is dominated by water–rock interaction and cation exchange reactions. The major ions in groundwater are mainly controlled by various geogenic processes including halite, gypsum, calcite, dolomite, Glauber’s salt, feldspar, and fluorite dissolution/precipitation. Furthermore, the abundant fluoride-bearing sediments, together with low Ca2+, promote the formation of high F− groundwater. Approximately 85.7% and 28.6% of groundwater samples exceeded the permissible limit for F− and NO3− respectively. Apart from geogenic F−, human interventions (i.e., industrial fluoride-containing wastewater discharge and agricultural phosphate fertilizer uses) also regulate the F− enrichment in the shallow groundwater. Nitrate pollution of the groundwater may be attributed to domestic waste and animal feces. Our findings could provide valuable information for the sustainable exploitation of groundwater in the study area and the development of effective management strategies by the authorities.
Graphical abstract
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
References
Apollaro C, Di Curzio D, Fuoco I, Buccianti A, Dinelli E, Vespasiano G, Castrignanò A, Rusi S, Barca D, Figoli A, Gabriele B, De Rosa R (2022) A multivariate non-parametric approach for estimating probability of exceeding the local natural background level of arsenic in the aquifers of Calabria region (Southern Italy). Sci Total Environ 806:150345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150345
Aravinthasamy P, Karunanidhi D, Subramani T, Srinivasamoorthy K, Anand B (2020) Geochemical evaluation of fluoride contamination in groundwater from Shanmuganadhi River basin, South India: implication on human health. Environ Geochem Health 42:1937–1963. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-019-00452-x
Cao Z, Feng Q, Wu Q, Meng L (2010) Spatial variability and distribution of fluorine contents in shallow groundwater in the Fengpei area, Jiangsu. Hydrogeol Eng Geol 37:127–132 (in Chinese)
Cao J, Lu Q, Shi S (2017) Evaluation on groundwater over exploitatior district in Feng County and research on pressure production feasibility. Water Resour Dev Manag 9:24–29 (in Chinese)
Charfi S, Trabelsi R, Zouari K, Chkir N, Charfi H, Rekaia M (2013) Isotopic and hydrochemical investigation of the Grombalia deep aquifer system, northeastern Tunisia. Carbonates Evaporites 28:281–295. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13146-012-0114-5
Chen J, Wu H, Qian H (2016) Groundwater nitrate contamination and associated health risk for the rural communities in an agricultural area of Ningxia, Northwest China. Expo Health 8:349–359. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-016-0208-8
Chen J, Gao Y, Qian H, Ren W, Qu W (2021) Hydrogeochemical evidence for fluoride behavior in groundwater and the associated risk to human health for a large irrigation plain in the Yellow River Basin. Sci Total Environ 800:149428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149428
Chen H, Yan M, Yang X, Chen Z, Wang G, Schmidt-Vogt D, Xu Y, Xu J (2012) Spatial distribution and temporal variation of high fluoride spatial distribution and temporal variation of high fluoride contents in groundwater and prevalence of fluorosis in humans in Yuanmou County, Southwest China. 201–209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2012.07.042
Craig H (1961) Isotopic Variations in Meteoric Waters. Science 133:1702–1703. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.133.3465.1702
Fan S, Shen S (1999) The formation conditions of the groundwater high fluoride area in the Feng-Pei-Tong area of Xuzhou. Environ Sci Technol 12:10–13
Fu C, Li X, Ma J, Liu L, Gao M, Bai Z (2018) A hydrochemistry and multi-isotopic study of groundwater origin and hydrochemical evolution in the middle reaches of the Kuye River basin. Appl Geochem 98:82–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2018.08.030
Fuoco I, De Rosa R, Barca D, Figoli A, Gabriele B, Apollaro C (2022a) Arsenic polluted waters: application of geochemical modelling as a tool to understand the release and fate of the pollutant in crystalline aquifers. J Environ Manage 301:113796. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.113796
Fuoco I, Marini L, De Rosa R, Figoli A, Gabriele B, Apollaro C (2022b) Use of reaction path modelling to investigate the evolution of water chemistry in shallow to deep crystalline aquifers with a special focus on fluoride. Sci Total Environ 830:154566. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.154566
Gao Z, Wang Z, Wang S, Wu X, An Y, Wang W, Liu J (2019) Factors that influence the chemical composition and evolution of shallow groundwater in an arid region: a case study from the middle reaches of the Heihe River, China. Environ Earth Sci 78:390. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-019-8391-0
Gao S, Li C, Jia C, Zhang H, Lv M, Sun B, Chen H, Gang S, Meng F (2021) Hydrochemical and stable isotope (δ2H and δ18O) characteristics and hydrogeochemical processes in the Baotu Spring Basin, Eastern China. Arab J Geosci 14:2084. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-021-08410-7
Gibbs RJ (1970) Mechanisms controlling world water chemistry. Science 170:1088–1090. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.170.3962.1088
He X, Wu J, He S (2019) Hydrochemical characteristics and quality evaluation of groundwater in terms of health risks in Luohe aquifer in Wuqi County of the Chinese Loess Plateau, northwest China. Hum Ecol Risk Assess Int J 25:32–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2018.1531693
Hu Y, You M, Liu G, Dong Z (2021) Spatial distribution and potential health risk of fluoride in drinking groundwater sources of Huaibei, Anhui Province. Province Sci Rep 11:8371. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-87699-6
Hu W, Guan S (2014) Do a good job in the practice and thinking of the development and utilization of water resources in Feng County. Jiangsu Water Resour 9:40–42. https://doi.org/10.16310/j.cnki.jssl.2014.09.002 (in Chinese)
Jing J, Guan Z, Shan Y, Jing J (2019) Exploitation and utilization of groundwater and potential water source analysis of Fengpei Plain area. Geol Surv China 6:87–91 (in Chinese)
Jing J, Hu D, Xu H (2018) Suggestions for groundwater monitor network layout and later work abundant in Fengpei plain area. Environ Eng 36:84–87 (in Chinese)
Kundu MC, Mandal B (2008) Assessment of potential hazards of fluoride contamination in drinking groundwater of an intensively cultivated. Environ Monit Assess 152:97. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-008-0299-1
Li C, Gao X, Wang Y (2015) Hydrogeochemistry of high-fluoride groundwater at Yuncheng Basin, northern China. Sci Total Environ 508:155–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.11.045
Li D, Gao X, Wang Y, Luo W (2018) Diverse mechanisms drive fluoride enrichment in groundwater in two neighboring sites in northern China. Environ Pollut 237:430–441. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.02.072
Li Z, Xiao J, Evaristo J, Li Z (2019) Spatiotemporal variations in the hydrochemical characteristics and controlling factors of streamflow and groundwater in the Wei River of China. Environ Pollut 254:113006. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113006
Liu F, Song X, Yang L, Han D, Zhang Y, Ma Y, Bu H (2015) The role of anthropogenic and natural factors in shaping the geochemical evolution of groundwater in the Subei Lake basin, Ordos energy base, Northwestern China. Sci Total Environ 538:327–340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.08.057
Liu F, Song X, Zhen P, Wang L, Wang S (2019a) Insights from stable isotopes of water and hydrochemistry to the evolutionary processes of groundwater in the Subei lake basin, Ordos energy base, Northwestern China. Isot Environ Health Stud 55:438–458. https://doi.org/10.1080/10256016.2019.1654472
Liu F, Wang S, Wang L, Shi L, Song X, Yeh T-CJ, Zhen P (2019b) Coupling hydrochemistry and stable isotopes to identify the major factors affecting groundwater geochemical evolution in the Heilongdong Spring Basin, North China. J Geochem Explor 205:106352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2019.106352
Liu F, Wang S, Yeh TJ, Zhen P, Wang L, Shi L (2020a) Using multivariate statistical techniques and geochemical modelling to identify factors controlling the evolution of groundwater chemistry in a typical transitional area between Taihang Mountains and North China Plain. Factors controlling the evolution of groundwater chemistry in a typical transitional area between Taihang Mountains and North China Plain. Hydrol Process 34:1888–1905. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.13701
Liu F, Zhao Z, Yang L, Ma Y, Xu Y, Gong L, Liu H (2020) Geochemical characterization of shallow groundwater using multivariate statistical analysis and geochemical modeling in an irrigated region along the upper Yellow River, Northwestern China. J Geochem Explor 215:106565. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2020.106565
Liu F, Zou J, Liu J, Zhang J, Zhen P (2022) Factors controlling groundwater chemical evolution with the impact of reduced exploitation. CATENA 214:106261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2022.106261
Loganathan P, Hedley MJ, Wallace GC, Roberts AHC (2001) Fluoride accumulation in pasture forages and soils following long-term applications of phosphorus fertilizers. Environ Pollut 115:275–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0269-7491(01)00102-6
Miao X, Lu M (1992) Formation and migration of high fluorine groundwater in Feng-Pei - Tongshan Counties, Northern Jiangsu. J Geol 16:35–38 (in Chinese)
Mwiathi NF, Gao X, Li C, Rashid A (2022) The occurrence of geogenic fluoride in shallow aquifers of Kenya Rift Valley and its implications in groundwater management. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 229:113046. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.113046
Nawale VP, Malpe DB, Marghade D, Yenkie R (2021) Non-carcinogenic health risk assessment with source identification of nitrate and fluoride polluted groundwater of Wardha sub-basin, central India. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 208:111548. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2020.111548
Pettenati M, Perrin J, Pauwels H, Ahmed S (2013) Simulating fluoride evolution in groundwater using a reactive multicomponent transient transport model: application to a crystalline aquifer of Southern India. Appl Geochem 29:102–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2012.11.001
Piper A (1944) A graphic procedure in the geochemical interpretation of water-analyses. eos. Trans Am Geophys Union 25:914–928. https://doi.org/10.1029/TR025i006p00914
Qin R, Wu Y, Xu Z, Xie D, Zhang C (2013) Assessing the impact of natural and anthropogenic activities on groundwater quality in coastal alluvial aquifers of the lower Liaohe River Plain, NE China. aquifers of the lower Liaohe River Plain, NE China. Appl Geochem 31:142–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2013.01.001
Rao NS (1997) The occurrence and behaviour of fluoride in the groundwater of the Lower Vamsadhara River basin, India. Hydrol Sci J 42:877–892. https://doi.org/10.1080/02626669709492085
Rashid A, Farooqi A, Gao X, Zahir S, Noor S, Khattak JA (2020) Geochemical modeling, source apportionment, health risk exposure and control of higher fluoride in groundwater of sub-district Dargai, Pakistan. Chemosphere 243:125409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.125409
Saether OM, Andreassen BTh, Semb A (1995) Amounts and sources of fluoride in precipitation over southern Norway. Atmos Environ 29:1785–1793. https://doi.org/10.1016/1352-2310(95)00100-D
Schoeller H (1965) Qualitative evaluation of groundwater resources. Methods and techniques of groundwater investigations and development. UNESCO, 5483
Su H, Kang W, Li Y, Li Z (2021) Fluoride and nitrate contamination of groundwater in the Loess Plateau, China: sources and related human health risks. Environ Pollut 286:117287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117287
Su H, Geng D, Zhang Z, Luo Q, Wang J (2020) Assessment of the impact of natural and anthropogenic activities on the groundwater chemistry in Baotou City (North China) using geochemical equilibrium and multivariate statistical techniques. 27662 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-09117-0
Subba Rao N, Dinakar A, Surya Rao P, Rao PN, Madhnure P, Prasad KM, Sudarshan G (2016) Geochemical processes controlling fluoride-bearing groundwater in the granitic aquifer of a semi-arid region. J Geol Soc India 88:350–356. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12594-016-0497-3
Subba Rao N, Ravindra B, Wu J (2020) Geochemical and health risk evaluation of fluoride-rich groundwater in Sattenapalle Region, Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh, India. Hum Ecol Risk Assess Int J 26:2316–2348. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2020.1741338
Sunkari ED, Abu M, Zango MS (2021) Geochemical evolution and tracing of groundwater salinization using different ionic ratios, multivariate statistical and geochemical modeling approaches in a typical semi-arid basin. J Contam Hydrol 236:103742. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconhyd.2020.103742
Vikas C, Kushwaha R, Ahmad W, Prasannakumar V, Dhanya PV, Reghunath R (2015) Hydrochemical appraisal and geochemical evolution of groundwater with special reference to nitrate contamination in aquifers of a semi-arid terrain of NW India. Water Qual Expo Health 7:347–361. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-014-0155-1
Wang Y, Song X, Li B, Ma Y, Zhang Y, Yang L, Bu H, Holm PE (2018) Temporal variation in groundwater hydrochemistry driven by natural and anthropogenic processes at a reclaimed water irrigation region. Hydrol Res 49:1652–1668. https://doi.org/10.2166/nh.2018.123
Wang Z, Su Q, Wang S, Gao Z, Liu J (2022) Coupling hydrochemistry and stable isotopes (δ2H and δ18O) to identify the major factors affecting the hydrochemical evolution of groundwater in the Western Yellow Sea Coast, China. Appl Geochem 138:105221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2022.105221
WHO (2011) Guidelines for drinking-water quality, 4th edn ed. World Health Organization, Geneva
Xiao J, Wang L, Chai N, Liu T, Jin Z, Rinklebe J (2021) Groundwater hydrochemistry, source identification and pollution assessment in intensive industrial areas, eastern Chinese loess plateau. Environ Pollut 278:116930. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.116930
Xu N, Gong J, Yang G (2018) Using environmental isotopes along with major hydrogeochemical compositions to assess deep groundwater formation and evolution in eastern coastal China and evolution in eastern coastal China. J Contam Hydrol 208:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconhyd.2017.11.003
Yan J, Chen J, Zhang W, Ma F (2020) Determining fluoride distribution and influencing factors in groundwater in Songyuan, Northeast China, using hydrochemical and isotopic methods. J Geochem Explor 217:106605. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2020.106605
Yang C, Cai W, Xing Y (2016) Current situation of groundwater resources and feasibility of reduced exploitation in Feng County. Sci Technol 23:130–131 (in Chinese)
Yin Z, Luo Q, Wu J, Xu S, Wu J (2021) Identification of the long-term variations of groundwater and their governing factors based on hydrochemical and isotopic data in a river basin. J Hydrol 592:125604. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2020.125604
Younas A, Mushtaq N, Khattak JA, Javed T, Rehman HU, Farooqi A (2019) High levels of fluoride contamination in groundwater of the semi-arid alluvial aquifers, Pakistan: evaluating the recharge sources and geochemical identification via stable isotopes and other major elemental data. Environ Sci Pollut Res 26:35728–35741. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-06610-z
Zaidi FK, Mogren S, Mukhopadhyay M, Ibrahim E (2016) Evaluation of groundwater chemistry and its impact on drinking and irrigation water quality in the eastern part of the Central Arabian graben and trough system, Saudi Arabia. J African Earth Sci 120:208–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2016.05.012
Zhang J, Zhu F, Chen R, Miao X, Yao S (1998) Discussion on the genesis of high-fluoride groundwater in Feng county, Pei county, and Tongshan areas of Jiangsu Province. Geol J China Univ 4:139–146 (in Chinese)
Zhang B, Zhao D, Zhou P, Qu S, Liao F, Wang G (2020a) Hydrochemical characteristics of groundwater and dominant water-rock interactions in the Delingha Area, Qaidam Basin, Northwest China. Water 12:836. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12030836
Zhang Q, Xu P, Qian H, Yang F (2020b) Hydrogeochemistry and fluoride contamination in Jiaokou Irrigation District, Central China: assessment based on multivariate statistical approach and human health risk. Sci Total Environ 741:140460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140460
Zhang S, Rasool G, Guo X, Sen L, Cao K (2020c) Effects of different irrigation methods on environmental factors, rice production, and water use efficiency. Water 12:2239. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12082239
Zhao Y, Han J, Zhang B, Gong J (2021) Impact of transferred water on the hydrochemistry and water quality of surface water and groundwater in Baiyangdian Lake, North China. Geosci Front 12:101086. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2020.09.015
Zhou L, Zheng S, Chen D, Yuan X, Lu M, Feng Q, Zhu X (2021) Hydrogeochemistry of fluoride in shallow groundwater of the abandoned Yellow River delta, China. Hydrol Res 52:572–584. https://doi.org/10.2166/nh.2021.094
Zhu C, Gong J, Zhou K, Wang X, Li L, Tao X, Ye Y 2022 Hydrochemical characteristics of shallow groundwater in Fengpei Plain Area. Earth Environ 1–8 https://doi.org/10.14050/j.cnki.1672-9250.2022.50.106 (In Chinese)
Zhu K (2007) The practice of rural drinking water safety project construction in Feng County. Jiangsu Water Resour 7:43–45 (in Chinese)
Acknowledgements
The authors thank our colleagues and graduate students for their help in data collection and fieldwork. Special thanks to the editor and anonymous reviewers for their critical comments and valuable suggestions in the present form.
Funding
This study was supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2020YFD0900703) and the Science and Technology Project on Water Conservancy in Jiangsu Province (2021056).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Shou Wang contributed to the investigation, data analysis, interpretation of results, and original draft. Jing Chen was involved in funding acquisition, project management, conceptualization, and writing review. Wei Jiang contributed to data curation and editing. Shuxuan Zhang was involved in the investigation, sample analysis, interpretation of results, and writing. Ran Jing contributed to the investigation, and data analysis. Shengyun Yang was involved in the literature collection and formal analysis. All authors read and approved the final draft.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval
Not applicable.
Consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Xianliang Yi
Publisher's note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Highlights
• Rock weathering principally predominated the groundwater chemistry.
• Groundwater is undersaturated for the evaporitic minerals, whereas carbonate is saturated.
• Fluorinated minerals and phosphate fertilization use controlled the F− in groundwater.
• Nitrate contamination is derived from domestic sewage, animal feces, and industrial wastewater.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Wang, S., Chen, J., Jiang, W. et al. Identifying the geochemical evolution and controlling factors of the shallow groundwater in a high fluoride area, Feng County, China. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30, 20277–20296 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-23516-5
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-23516-5