Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Occurrence, emission sources, and risk assessment of polybrominated diphenyl ethers and current-use brominated flame retardants in settled dust from end-of-life vehicle processing, urban, and rural areas, northern Vietnam

  • Research Article
  • Published:
Environmental Science and Pollution Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Settled dust samples from Vietnamese end-of-life vehicle (ELV) processing, urban, and rural areas were analyzed for polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and other current-use brominated flame retardants (BFRs). PBDE levels found in dust samples collected from ELV workshops (median 390; range 120–520 ng/g) and nearby living areas (110; 36–650 ng/g) were generally higher than those in common house dust (25–170 ng/g). BDE-209 was the most predominant congener detected in almost all the samples, indicating extensive application of products containing deca-BDE mixtures. The dust samples from ELV workplaces showed a more abundance of lower brominated congeners (e.g., tetra- to hexa-BDEs) that may originate from car interior materials treated by penta-BDE formulations. Concentrations of other BFRs decreased in the order urban > rural > ELV dust, reflecting the current use of these compounds in new consumer products. Decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE) and 1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy)ethane (BTBPE) were the major alternative BFRs. Daily intake doses and hazard indexes of PBDEs and some other BFRs through dust ingestion were estimated and showed acceptable levels of risk. However, more comprehensive risk assessment considering multiple exposure pathways should be performed, especially for ELV workers and children in the ELV processing and urban areas.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Data availability

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article and its supplementary information files.

References

  • Al-Omran LS, Harrad S (2016) Polybrominated diphenyl ethers and “novel” brominated flame retardants in floor and elevated surface house dust from Iraq: Implications for human exposure assessment. Emerg Contam 2:7–13

    Google Scholar 

  • Ali N, Eqani SAMAS, Ismail IMI, Malarvannan G, Kadi MW, Albar HMS, Rehana M, Covaci A (2016) Brominated and organophosphate flame retardants in indoor dust of Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Implications for human exposure. Sci Total Environ 569–570:269–277

    Google Scholar 

  • Anh HQ, Nam VD, Tri TM, Ha NM, Ngoc NT, Mai PTN, Anh DH, Minh NH, Tuan NA, Minh TB (2017) Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in plastic products, indoor dust, sediment and fish from informal e-waste recycling sites in Vietnam: a comprehensive assessment of contamination, accumulation pattern, emissions, and human exposure. Environ Geochem Health 39:935–954

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anh HQ, Tomioka K, Tue NM, Tri TM, Minh TB, Takahashi S (2018) PBDEs and novel brominated flame retardants in road dust from northern Vietnam: levels, congener profiles, emission sources and implications for human exposure. Chemosphere 197:389–398

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cahill TM, Groskova D, Charles MJ, Sanborn JR, Denison MS, Baker L (2007) Atmospheric concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers at near-source sites. Environ Sci Technol 41:6370–6377

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cao Z, Zhao L, Kuang J, Chen Q, Zhu G, Zhang K, Wang S, Wu P, Zhang X, Wang X, Harrad S, Sun J (2017) Vehicles as outdoor BFR sources: evidence from an investigation of BFR occurrence in road dust. Chemosphere 179:29–36

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Choi J, Jang YC, Kim JG (2017) Substance flow analysis and environmental releases of PBDEs in life cycle of automobiles. Sci Total Environ 574:1085–1094

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Coelho SD, Sousa ACA, Isobe T, Kim JW, Kunisue T, Nogueira AJA, Tanabe S (2016) Brominated, chlorinated and phosphate organic contaminants in house dust from Portugal. Sci Total Environ 569–570:442–449

    Google Scholar 

  • Covaci A, Harrad S, Abdallah MA-E, Ali N, Law RJ, Herzke D, de Wit CA (2011) Novel brominated flame retardants: a review of their analysis, environmental fate and behaviour. Environ Int 37:532–556

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cristale J, Bele TGA, Lacorte S, de Marchi MRR (2018) Occurrence and human exposure to brominated andorganophosphorus flame retardants via indoor dust in a Brazilian city. Environ Pollut 237:695–703

  • de Wit CA, Kierkegaard A, Ricklund N, Sellstrom U (2010) Emerging brominated flame retardants in the environment. In: Eljarrat E, Barcelo D (eds) The handbook of environmental chemistry Brominated Flame Retardants, vol 16. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp 241–286

    Google Scholar 

  • Darnerud PO (2003) Toxic effects of brominated flame retardants in man and in wildlife. Environ Int 29:841–853

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ding N, Wang T, Chen SJ, Yu M, Zhu ZC, Tian M, Luo XJ, Mai BX (2016) Brominated flame retardants (BFRs) in indoor and outdoor air in a community in Guangzhou, a megacity of southern China. Environ Pollut 212:457–463

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Drage DS, Sharkey M, Abdallah MAE, Berresheim H, Harrad S (2018) Brominated flame retardants in Irish waste polymers: concentrations, legislative compliance, and treatment options. Sci Total Environ 625:1535–1543

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eguchi A, Isobe T, Ramu K, Tue NM, Sudaryanto A, Devanathan G, Viet PH, Tana RS, Takahashi S, Subramanian A, Tanabe S (2013) Soil contamination by brominated flame retardants in open waste dumping sites in Asian developing countries. Chemosphere 90:2365–2371

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Frederiksen M, Vorkamp K, Thomsen M, Knudsen LE (2009) Human internal and external exposure to PBDEs – a review of levels and sources. Int J Hyg Environ Health 212:109–134

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hakk H, Larsen G, Bowers J (2004) Metabolism, tissue disposition, and excretion of 1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy)ethane (BTBPE) in male Sprague-Dawley rats. Chemosphere 54:1367–1374

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hardy M, Biesemeier J, Banasik M, Stedeford T (2008) Comment on “Alternate and new brominated flame retardants detected in U.S. house dust.” Environ Sci Technol 42:9453–9454

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • He CH, Zheng XB, Yan X, Zheng J, Wang MH, Tan X, Qiao L, Chen SJ, Yang ZY, Mai BX (2017) Organic contaminants and heavy metals in indoor dust from e-waste recycling, rural, and urban areas in South China: spatial characteristics and implications for human exposure. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 140:109–115

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hearn LK, Hawker DW, Mueller JF (2012) Dispersal patterns of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in the vicinity of an automotive shredding and metal recycling facility. Atmos Pollut Res 3:317–324

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hearn LK, Hawker DW, Toms LML, Mueller JF (2013) Assessing exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) for workers in the vicinity of a large recycling facility. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 92:222–228

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoang AQ, Tran TM, Tu MB, Takahashi S (2021a) Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in indoor and outdoor dust from Southeast Asia: an updated review on contamination status, human exposure, and future perspectives. Environ Pollut 272:116012

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoang MTT, Anh HQ, Kadokami K, Duong HT, Hoang HM, Nguyen TV, Takahashi S, Le GT, Trinh HT (2021b) Contamination status, emission sources, and human health risk of brominated flame retardants in urban indoor dust from Hanoi, Vietnam: the replacement of legacy polybrominated diphenyl ether mixtures by alternative formulations. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28:43885–43896

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoh E, Zhu L, Hites RA (2005) Novel flame retardants, 1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy)ethane and 2,3,4,5,6-pentabromoethylbenzene, in United States’ environmental samples. Environ Sci Technol 39:2472–2477

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson-Restrepo B, Kannan K (2009) An assessment of sources and pathways of human exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers in the United States. Chemosphere 76:542–548

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jones-Otazo HA, Clarke JP, Diamond ML, Archbold JA, Ferguson G, Harner T, Richardson GM, Ryan JJ, Wilford B (2005) Is house dust the missing exposure pathway for PBDEs? An analysis of the urban fate and human exposure to PBDEs. Environ Sci Technol 39:5121–5230

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kalachova K, Hradkova P, Lankova D, Hajslova J, Pulkrabova J (2012) Occurrence of brominated flame retardants in household and car dust from the Czech Republic. Sci Total Environ 441:182–193

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Khan MU, Li J, Zhang G, Malik RN (2016) New insight into the levels, distribution and health risk diagnosis of indoor and outdoor dust-bound FRs in colder, rural and industrial zones of Pakistan. Environ Pollut 216:662–674

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kierkegaard A, Bjorklund J, Friden U (2004) Identification of the flame retardant decabromodiphenyl ethane in the environment. Environ Sci Technol 38:3247–3253

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kuang J, Ma Y, Harrad S (2016) Concentrations of “legacy” and novel brominated flame retardants in matched samples of UK kitchen and living room/bedroom dust. Chemosphere 149:224–230

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kurt-Karakus, PB, Alegria H, Jantunen L, Birgul A, Topcu A, Jones KC, Turgut C (2017) Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and alternative flame retardants (NFRs) in indoor and outdoor air and indoor dust from Istanbul-Turkey: Levels and an assessment of human exposure. Atmos Pollut Res 8:801–815

  • La Guardia MJ, Hale RC, Harvey E (2006) Detailed polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) congener composition of the widely used penta-, octa-, and deca-PBDE technical flame-retardant mixtures. Environ Sci Technol 40:6247–6254

    Google Scholar 

  • Lagalante AF, Shedden CS, Greenbacker PW (2011) Levels of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in dust from personal automobiles in conjunction with studies on the photochemical degradation of decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209). Environ Int 37:899–906

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lam JCW, Lam PKS (2015) Occurrence and ecological risk of halogenated flame retardants (HFRs) in coastal zones. In: Zheng EY (ed) Comprehensive analytical chemistry persistent organic pollutants (POPs): analytical techniques, environmental fate and biological effects, Elsevier 67:389–410

  • Lee SC, Sverko E, Harner T, Pozo K, Barresi E, Schachtschneider J, Zaruk D, DeJong M, Narayan J (2016) Retrospective analysis of “new” flame retardants in the global atmosphere under the GAPS Network. Environ Pollut 217:62–69

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li J, Chen Y, Xiao W (2017) Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in articles: a review of its applications and legistration. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24:4312–4321

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McGrath TJ, Morrison PD, Ball AS, Clarke BO (2017) Detection of novel brominated flame retardants (NBFRs) in the urban soils of Melbourne, Australia. Emerg Contam 3:23–31

    Google Scholar 

  • McGrath TJ, Morrison PD, Ball AS, Clarke BO (2018) Concentrations of legacy and novel brominated flame retardants in indoor dust in Melbourne, Australia: an assessment of human exposure. Environ Int 113:191–201

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Muenhor D, Harrad S, Ali N, Covaci A (2010) Brominated flame retardants (BFRs) in air and dust from electronic waste storage facilities in Thailand. Environ Int 36:690–698

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ni HG, Lu SY, Mo T, Zeng H (2016) Brominated flame retardant emissions from the open burning of five plastic wastes and implications for environmental exposure in China. Environ Pollut 214:70–76

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nomeir AA, Markham PM, Ghanayem BI, Chadwick M (1993) Disposition of the flameretardant 1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy)ethane in rats following administration in the diet. Drug Metab Dispos 21:209–214

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Osada M, Tanigaki N, Takahashi S, Sakai S (2008) Brominated flame retardants and heavy metals in automobile shredder residue (ASR) and their behavior in the melting process. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 10:93–101

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peng C, Tan H, Guo Y, Wu Y, Chen D (2017) Emerging and legacy flame retardants in indoor dust from East China. Chemosphere 186:635–643

  • Qi H, Li WL, Liu LY, Zhang ZF, Zhu NZ, Song WW, Ma WL, Li YF (2014) Levels, distribution and human exposure of new non-BDE brominated flame retardants in the indoor dust of China. Environ Pollut 195:1–8

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Redin L, Niinipuu M, Jansson S (2017) Occurrence of brominated diphenyl ethers, dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans in foam materials in scrapped car seats from 1985 to 2012. Waste Manag 61:300–306

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sakai S, Yoshida H, Hiratsuka J, Vandecasteele C, Kohlmeyer R, Rotter VS, Passarini F, Santini A, Peeler M, Li J, Oh GJ, Chi NK, Bastian L, Moore S, Kajiwara N, Takigami H, Itai T, Takahashi S, Tanabe S, Tomoda K, Hirakawa T, Hirai Y, Asari M, Yano J (2014) An international comparative study of end-of-life vehicle (ELV) recycling systems. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 16:1–20

    Google Scholar 

  • Shi T, Chen SJ, Luo XJ, Zhang XL, Tang CM, Luo Y, Ma YJ, Wu JP, Peng XZ, Mai BX (2009) Occurrence of brominated flame retardants other than polybrominated diphenyl ethers in environmental and biota samples from southern China. Chemosphere 74:910–916

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sjodin A, Carlsson H, Thuresson K, Sjolin S, Bergman A, Ostman C (2001) Flame retardants in indoor air at an electronics recycling plant and at other work environments. Environ Sci Technol 35:448–454

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stapleton HM, Dodder NG (2008) Photodegradation of decabromodiphenyl ether in house dust by natural sunlight. Environ Toxicol Chem 27:306–312

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Takahashi S, Tue NM, Takayanagi C, Tuyen LH, Suzuki G, Matsukami H, Viet PH, Kunisue T, Tanabe S (2017) PCBs, PBDEs and dioxin-related compounds in floor dust from an informal end-of-life vehicle recycling site in northern Vietnam: Contamination levels and implications for human exposure. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 19:1333–1341

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tran LT, Kieu TC, Bui HM, Nguyen NT, Nguyen TTT, Nguyen DT, Nguyen TQ, Nguyen HTA, Le TH, Takahashi S, Tu MB, Hoang AQ (2022) Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in indoor dusts from industrial factories, offices, and houses in northern Vietnam: contamination characteristics and human exposure. Environ Geochem Health 44:2375–2388

    Google Scholar 

  • Tue NM, Takahashi S, Suzuki G, Isobe T, Viet PH, Kobara Y, Seike N, Zhang G, Sudaryanto A, Tanabe S (2013) Contamination of indoor dust and air by polychlorinated biphenyls and brominated flame retardants and relevance of non-dietary exposure in Vietnamese informal e-waste recycling sites. Environ Int 51:160–167

    Google Scholar 

  • UNEP (2015) UNEP/POPS/POPRC.11/10/Add.1. Risk management evaluation on decabromodiphenyl ether (commercial mixture, c-decaBDE). http://chm.pops.int/Implementation/Alternatives/AlternativestoPOPs/ChemicalslistedinAnnexA/cdecaBDE/tabid/5985/Default.aspx (accessed 9 April 2018)

  • UNEP (2017) Guidance for the inventory of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) listed under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. http://chm.pops.int/Implementation/NIPs/Guidance/GuidancefortheinventoryofPBDEs/tabid/3171/Default.aspx (accessed 29 March 2018)

  • US EPA (1987) Intergrated Risk Information System 1987. https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/iris (accessed 17 March 2018)

  • US EPA (2008) Intergrated Risk Information System 2008. https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/iris (accessed 17 March 2018)

  • Venier M, Audy O, Vojta S, Bečanová J, Romanak K, Melymuk L, Krátkáb M, Kukučka P, Okeme J, Saini A, Diamond ML, Klánová J (2016) Brominated flame retardants in the indoor environment–comparative study of indoor contamination from three countries. Environ Int 94:150–160

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang J, Ma YJ, Chen SJ, Tian M, Luo XJ, Mai BX (2010) Brominated flame retardants in house dust from e-waste recycling and urban areas in South China: implications on human exposure. Environ Int 36:535–541

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang J, Wang Y, Shi Z, Zhou X, Sun Z (2018) Legacy and novel brominated flame retardants in indoor dust from Beijing, China: occurrence, human exposure assessment and evidence for PBDEs replacement. Sci Total Environ 618:48–59

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Watanabe I, Sakai S (2003) Environmental release and behavior of brominated flame retardants. Environ Int 29:665–682

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Xu F, Liu YC, Wang J, Zhang G, Zhang W, Liu L, Wang J, Pan B, Lin K (2015) Characterization of heavy metals and brominated flame retardants in the indoor and outdoor dust of e-waste workshops: implication for on-site human exposure. Environ Sci Pollut Res 22:5469–5480

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yadav IC, Devi NL, Li J, Zhang G (2017) Occurrence and source apportionment of halogenated flame retardants in the indoor air of Nepalese cities: implication on human health. Atmos Environ 161:122–131

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yadav IC, Devi NL, Li J, Zhang G (2018) Environmental concentration and atmospheric deposition of halogenated flame retardants in soil from Nepal: source apportionment and soil-air partitioning. Environ Pollut 233:642–654

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zheng X, Xu F, Chen K, Zeng Y, Luo X, Chen S, Mai B, Covaci A (2015) Flame retardants and organochlorines in indoor dust from several e-waste recycling sites in South China: composition variations and implications for human exposure. Environ Int 78:1–7

    CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgement

Fund for the Promotion of Joint International Research (Fostering Joint International Research (B)) (18KK0300) was from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS).

Funding

Anh Quoc Hoang, ID VNU.2021.TTS.01, thanks the Development Foundation of Vietnam National University, Hanoi, for sponsoring this research.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Chemistry, University of Science, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, 19 Le Thanh Tong, Hanoi, 11000, Vietnam

    Anh Quoc Hoang, Tri Manh Tran & Minh Binh Tu

  2. Center of Advanced Technology for the Environment (CATE), Graduate School of Agriculture, Ehime University, 3-5-7 Tarumi, Matsuyama, 790-8566, Japan

    Shin Takahashi

  3. Key Laboratory of Analytical Technology for Environmental Quality and Food Safety Control (KLATEFOS), University of Science, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, 334 Nguyen Trai, Hanoi, 11400, Vietnam

    Nguyen Minh Tue

  4. Center for Marine Environmental Studies (CMES), Ehime University, 2-5 Bunkyo-cho, Matsuyama, 790-8577, Japan

    Nguyen Minh Tue

  5. University of Science, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, 334 Nguyen Trai, Hanoi, 11400, Vietnam

    Le Huu Tuyen

  6. National Institute of Hygiene and Epidemiology, Hai Ba Trung, Hanoi, Vietnam

    Nguyen Thi Hong Yen

Authors
  1. Anh Quoc Hoang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Shin Takahashi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Nguyen Minh Tue
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Le Huu Tuyen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Tri Manh Tran
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Nguyen Thi Hong Yen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Minh Binh Tu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

Anh Quoc Hoang, Shin Takahashi, Nguyen Minh Tue, Le Huu Tuyen, Tri Manh Tran, Nguyen Thi Hong Yen, and Minh Binh Tu contributed to the study conception and design, material preparation, data collection, and analysis. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Anh Quoc Hoang, and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Anh Quoc Hoang.

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval

Not applicable.

Research involving human participants, animals, their data, or biological material

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Responsible Editor: Constantini Samara

Publisher's note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary file1 (DOC 265 KB)

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Hoang, A.Q., Takahashi, S., Tue, N.M. et al. Occurrence, emission sources, and risk assessment of polybrominated diphenyl ethers and current-use brominated flame retardants in settled dust from end-of-life vehicle processing, urban, and rural areas, northern Vietnam. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30, 2061–2074 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-22396-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-22396-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation