Abstract
Ambient PM2.5 is one of the major risk factors for human health, and is not fully explained solely by mass concentration. We examined the short-term associations of cause-specific mortality (i.e., all-cause, cardiovascular, and respiratory mortality) with the 15 chemical constituents and sources of PM2.5 in four metropolitan cities of South Korea during 2014–2018. We found transition metals consistently showed significant associations with all-cause mortality, while the effects of other constituents varied across the cities and for cause of death. Carbonaceous components strongly affected the all-cause, cardiovascular, and respiratory mortality in Daejeon. Secondary inorganic aerosols, SO42− and NH4+, showed significant associations with respiratory mortality in Gwangju. We also found the sources from which species closely linked to mortality generally increased the relative mortality risks. Heavy metal markers from soil or industrial sources were significantly associated with mortality in all cities. However, several sources influenced mortality despite their marker species not being significantly associated with it. Secondary nitrate and secondary sulfate sources were linked to mortality in DJ. This could be attributed to the deep inland location, which might have facilitated formation of secondary inorganic aerosols. In addition, primary sources including mobile and coal combustion seemed to have acute impacts on respiratory mortality in Gwangju. Our findings suggest the necessity of positive matrix factorization (PMF)-based approaches for evaluating health effects of PM2.5 while considering the spatial heterogeneity in the compositions and source contributions of PM2.5.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Source profiles of PM2.5 in SL during 2014–2018; gray bar, black dot, and hollow dot indicate mass fraction, percentage contribution, and average error estimates of each species, respectively
Source profiles of PM2.5 in DJ during 2014–2018; gray bar, black dot, and hollow dot indicate mass fraction, percentage contribution, and average error estimates of each species, respectively
Source profiles of PM2.5 in GJ during 2014–2018; gray bar, black dot, and hollow dot indicate the mass fraction, percentage contribution, and average error estimates of each species, respectively
Source profiles of PM2.5 in US during 2014–2018; gray bar, black dot, and hollow dot indicate the mass fraction, percentage contribution, and average error estimates of each species, respectively
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article and its supplementary information files.
References
Amil N, Latif MT, Khan MF, Mohamad M (2016) Seasonal variability of PM2.5 composition and sources in the Klang Valley urban-industrial environment. Atmos Chem Phys 16(8):5357-5381. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-5357-2016
Allen MJ, Sheridan SC (2014) High-mortality days during the winter season: comparing meteorological conditions across 5 US cities. Int J Biometeorol 58:217–225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-013-0640-4
Atkinson RW, Kang S, Anderson HR, Mills IC, Walton HA (2014) Epidemiological time series studies of PM2.5 and daily mortality and hospital admissions: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Thorax 69:660–665. https://doi.org/10.1136/thoraxjnl-2013-204492
Bae C, Kim BU, Kim HC, Yoo C, Kim S (2019) Long-range transport influence on key chemical components of PM2.5 in the Seoul Metropolitan Area, South Korea, during the years 2012–2016. Atmosphere 11:48. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11010048
Bao F, Li M, Zhang Y, Chen C, Zhao J (2018) Photochemical aging of Beijing urban PM2.5: HONO production. Environ Sci Technol 52:6309–6316. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.8b00538
Begum BA, Biswas SK, Hopke PK (2007) Source Apportionment of Air Particulate Matter by Chemical Mass Balance (CMB) and Comparison with Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) Model. Aerosol Air Qual Res 7:446–468. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.2006.10.0021
Behera SN, Sharma M (2010) Reconstructing primary and secondary components of PM2.5 composition for an urban atmosphere. Aerosol Sci Technol 44:983–992. https://doi.org/10.1080/02786826.2010.504245
Bell ML, Ebisu K, Peng RD, Samet JM, Dominici F (2009) Hospital admissions and chemical composition of fine particle air pollution. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 179:1115–1120. https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.200808-1240OC
Bie S, Yang L, Zhang Y, Huang, Q, Li J, Zhao T, Zhang X, Wang P, Wang W (2021) Source appointment of PM2.5 in Qingdao port, east of China. Sci Total Environ 755:142456. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.384
Cai J, Peng C, Yu S, Pei Y, Liu N, Wu Y, Fu Y, Cheng J (2019) Association between PM2.5 exposure and all-cause, non-accidental, accidental, different RD diseases, sex and age mortality in Shenzhen, China. Int J Environ Res Public Health 16:401. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16030401
Chai G, He H, Sha Y, Zhai G, Zong S (2019) Effect of PM2.5 on daily outpatient visits for respiratory diseases in Lanzhou, China. Sci Total Environ 649:1563–1572. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.384
Cheng MC, You CF, Cao J, Jin Z (2012) Spatial and seasonal variability of water-soluble ions in PM2.5 aerosols in 14 major cities in China. Atmos Environ 60:182–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.06.037
Churg A, Brauer M (1997) Human lung parenchyma retains PM2.5. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 155(6):2109–2111. https://doi.org/10.1164/ajrccm.155.6.9196123
Dai W, Gao J, Cao G, Ouyang F (2013) Chemical composition and source identification of PM2.5 in the suburb of Shenzhen, China. Atmos Res 122:391–400. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2012.12.004
Donaldson K, Beswick PH, Gilmour PS (1996) Free radical activity associated with the surface of particles: a unifying factor in determining biological activity. Toxicol Lett 88:293–298. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-4274(96)03752-6
Dreher KL (2000) Particulate matter physicochemistry and toxicology: In search of causality-A critical perspective. Inhal Toxicol 12:45–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/08958378.2000.11463230
He K, Zhao Q, Ma Y, Duan F, Yang F, Shi Z, Chen G (2012) Spatial and seasonal variability of PM2.5 acidity at two Chinese megacities: insights into the formation of secondary inorganic aerosols. Atmos Chem Phys 12:1377–1395. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-12-1377-2012
Heo JB, Hopke PK, Yi SM (2009) Source apportionment of PM2.5 in Seoul, Korea. Atmos Chem Phys 9:4957–4971. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-9-4957-2009
Huang W, Zhu T, Pan X, Hu M, Lu SE, Lin Y, Wang T, Zhang Y, Tang X (2012) Air pollution and autonomic and vascular dysfunction in patients with cardiovascular disease: interactions of systemic inflammation, overweight, and gender. Am J Epidemiol 176:117–126. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwr511
Ito K, Mathes R, Ross Z, Nadas A, Thurston G, Matte T (2011) Fine particulate matter constituents associated with cardiovascular hospitalizations and mortality in New York City. Environ Health Perspect 119:467–473. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1002667
Janssen NAH, Fischer P, Marra M, Ameling C, Cassee FR (2013) Short-term effects of PM2.5, PM10 and PM2.5-10 on daily mortality in the Netherlands. Sci Total Environ 463:20–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.05.062
Jung J, Lee S, Kim H, Kim D, Lee H, Oh S (2014) Quantitative determination of the biomass-burning contribution to atmospheric carbonaceous aerosols in Daejeon, Korea, during the rice-harvest period. Atmos Environ 89:642–650. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.03.010
Kang M, Kim K, Choi N, Kim YP, Lee JY (2020) Recent Occurrence of PAHs and n-Alkanes in PM2.5 in Seoul, Korea and Characteristics of Their Sources and toxicity. Int J Environ Res Public Health 17:1397. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17041397
Ke L, Liu W, Wang Y, Russell AG, Edgerton ES, Zheng M (2008) Comparison of PM2.5 source apportionment using positive matrix factorization and molecular marker-based chemical mass balance. Sci Total Environ 394:290–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.01.030
Kim HS, Chung YS, Lee SG (2012) Characteristics of aerosol types during large-scale transport of air pollution over the Yellow Sea region and at Cheongwon, Korea, in 2008. Environ Monit Assess 184:1973–1984. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-011-2092-9
Kim BU, Kim O, Kim HC, Kim S (2016) Influence of fossil-fuel power plant emissions on the surface fine particulate matter in the Seoul Capital Area, South Korea. J Air Waste Manag Assoc 66:863–873. https://doi.org/10.1080/10962247.2016.1175392
Kim HW, Dong L, Choi AES, Fujii M, Fujita T, Park HS (2018) Co-benefit potential of industrial and urban symbiosis using waste heat from industrial park in Ulsan, Korea. Resour Conserv Recycl 135:225–234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2017.09.027
Kong S, Ding X, Bai Z, Han B, Chen L, Shi J, Li Z (2010) A seasonal study of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in PM2.5 and PM2.5–10 in five typical cities of Liaoning Province, China. J Hazard Mater 183:70–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.06.107
Korea MOE (2022) National Air Emission Inventory and Research Center, Emission data, from https://www.air.go.kr/en/jbgg/sub03
Lay JC, Zeman KL, Ghio AJ, Bennett WD (2001) Effects of inhaled iron oxide particles on alveolar epithelial permeability in normal subjects. Inhal Toxicol 13:1065–1078
Lei H, Wuebbles DJ (2013) Chemical competition in nitrate and sulfate formations and its effect on air quality. Atmos Environ 80:472–477. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.08.036
Li X, Chen X, Yuan X, Zeng G, León T, Liang J, Chen G, Yuan X (2017) Characteristics of particulate pollution (PM2.5 and PM10) and their spacescale-dependent relationships with meteorological elements in China. Sustainability 9:2330. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9122330
Li B, Yang J, Dong H, Li M, Cai D, Yang Z, Zhang C, Wang H, Hu J, Bergmann S, Lin G, Wang B (2021) PM2.5 constituents and mortality from a spectrum of causes in Guangzhou, China. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 222:112498. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.112498
Manousakas M, Papaefthymiou H, Diapouli E, Migliori A, Karydas AG, Bogdanovic-Radovic I, Eleftheriadis K (2017) Assessment of PM2.5 sources and their corresponding level of uncertainty in a coastal urban area using EPA PMF 5.0 enhanced diagnostics. Sci Total Environ 574:155–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.09.047
Mills NL, Donaldson K, Hadoke PW, Boon NA, MacNee W, Cassee FR, Sandström T, Blomberg A, Newby DE (2009) Adverse cardiovascular effects of air pollution. Nat Clin Pract Cardiovasc Med 6:36–44. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncpcardio1399
Moreno T, Trechera P, Querol X, Lah R, Johnson D, Wrana A, Williamson B (2019) Trace element fractionation between PM10 and PM2.5 in coal mine dust: Implications for occupational RD health. Int J Coal Geol 203:52–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2019.01.006
Norris G, Duvall R, Brown S, Bai S (2008) EPA Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) 5.0 Fundamentals and User Guide. Prepared for the US Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research and Development, Washington, DC. DC EPA/600/R-14/108
Paatero P, Eberly S, Brown SG, Norris GA (2014) Methods for estimating uncertainty in factor analytic solutions. Atmos Meas Tech 7:781–797. https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-7-781-2014
Pandey P, Patel DK, Khan AH, Barman SC, Murthy RC, Kisku GC (2013) Temporal distribution of fine particulates (PM2.5, PM10), potentially toxic metals, PAHs and Metal-bound carcinogenic risk in the population of Lucknow City, India. J Environ Sci Health 48:730–745. https://doi.org/10.1080/10934529.2013.744613
Park SS, Jung SA, Gong BJ, Cho SY, Lee SJ (2013) Characteristics of PM2.5 haze episodes revealed by highly time-resolved measurements at an air pollution monitoring Supersite in Korea. Aerosol Air Qual Res 13:957–976. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.2012.07.0184
Pascal M, Falq G, Wagner V, Chatignoux E, Corso M, Blanchard M, Host S, Pascal L, Larrieu S (2014) Short-term impacts of particulate matter (PM10, PM10-2.5, PM2.5) on mortality in nine French cities. Atmos Environ 95:175–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.06.030
Phung VLH, Ueda, K., Kasaoka S, Seposo X, Tasmin S, Yonemochi S, Phosri A, Honda A, Takano H, Michikawa T, Nitta H (2018) Acute effects of ambient PM2.5 on all-cause and cause-specific emergency ambulance dispatches in Japan. Int J Environ Res Public Health 15:307. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15020307
Pradeau C, Rondeau V, Leveque E, Guernion PY, Tentillier E, Thicoipe M, Brochard P (2015) Air pollution and activation of mobile medical team for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Am J Emerg Med 33:367–372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajem.2014.12.007
Qiao L, Cai J, Wang H, Wang W, Zhou M, Lou S, Chen R, Dai H, Chen C, Kan H (2014) PM2.5 constituents and hospital emergency-room visits in Shanghai, China. Environ Sci Technol 48:10406–10414. https://doi.org/10.1021/es501305k
Ryu SY, Kwon BG, Kim YJ, Kim HH, Chun KJ (2007) Characteristics of biomass burning aerosol and its impact on regional air quality in the summer of 2003 at Gwangju, Korea. Atmos Res 84:362–373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2006.09.007
Schins RPF, Lightbody JH, Borm PJA, Shi T, Donaldson K, Stone V (2004) Inflammatory effects of coarse and fine particulate matter in relation to chemical and biological constituents. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 195:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.taap.2003.10.002
Schneider A, Hampel R, Ibald-Mulli A, Zareba W, Schmidt G, Schneider R, Rückerl R, Couderc JP, Mykins B, Oberdörster G, Wölke G, Pitz M, Wichmann H-E, Peters A (2010) Changes in deceleration capacity of heart rate and heart rate variability induced by ambient air pollution in individuals with coronary artery disease. Part Fibre Toxicol 7:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-8977-7-29
Son JY, Lee JT, Kim KH, Jung K, Bell ML (2012) Characterization of fine particulate matter and associations between particulate chemical constituents and mortality in Seoul, Korea. Environ Health Perspect 120:872–878. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1104316
Song Y, Zhang Y, Xie S, Zeng L, Zheng M, Salmon LG, Shao M, Slanina S (2006) Source apportionment of PM2.5 in Beijing by positive matrix factorization. Atmos Environ 40:1526–1537. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2005.10.039
Teixeira EC, Agudelo-Castaneda DM, Mattiuzi CDP (2015) Contribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) sources to the urban environment: A comparison of receptor models. Sci Total Environ 538:212–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.07.072
Tutsak E, Koçak M (2019) High time-resolved measurements of water-soluble sulfate, nitrate and ammonium in PM2.5 and their precursor gases over the Eastern Mediterranean. Sci Total Environ 672:212–226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.03.451
Ueda K, Yamagami M, Ikemori F, Hisatsune K, Nitta H (2016) Associations between fine particulate matter components and daily mortality in Nagoya, Japan. J Epidemiol, JE20150039. https://doi.org/10.2188/jea.JE20150039
Wang X, Wang W, Yang L, Gao X, Nie W, Yu Y, Xu P, Zhou Y, Wang Z (2012) The secondary formation of inorganic aerosols in the droplet mode through heterogeneous aqueous reactions under haze conditions. Atmos Environ 63:68–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.09.029
Wang Y, Shi Z, Shen F, Sun J, Huang L, Zhang H, Chen C, Li T, Hu J (2019) Associations of daily mortality with short-term exposure to PM2.5 and its constituents in Shanghai, China. Chemosphere 233:879–887. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.05.249
Wang C, Yan Y, Niu Y, Li R, Xu Y, Hu D, Wu J, Peng L (2021) Formation and driving factors of sulfate in PM2.5 at a high-level atmospheric SO2 city of Yangquan in China. Air Qual Atmos Health 14:491–501. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-020-00953-0
Watson JG, Antony Chen LW, Chow JC, Doraiswamy P, Lowenthal DH (2008) Source apportionment: findings from the US supersites program. J Air Waste Manag Assoc 58:265–288. https://doi.org/10.3155/1047-3289.58.2.265
Wojas B, Almquist C (2007) Mass concentrations and metals speciation of PM2.5, PM10, and total suspended solids in Oxford, Ohio and comparison with those from metropolitan sites in the Greater Cincinnati region. Atmos Environ 41:9064–9078. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.08.010
Wu S, Deng F, Huang J, Wang H, Shima M, Wang X, Qin Y, Zheng C, Wei H, Hao Y, Lv H, Lu X, Guo X (2013) Blood pressure changes and chemical constituents of particulate air pollution: results from the healthy volunteer natural relocation (HVNR) study. Environ Health Perspect 121:66–72. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1104812
Ye B, Ji X, Yang H, Yao X, Chan CK, Cadle SH, Chan T, Mulawa PA (2003) Concentration and chemical composition of PM2.5 in Shanghai for a 1-year period. Atmos Environ 37:499–510. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(02)00918-4
Zhang Y, Bao F, Li M, Xia H, Huang D, Chen C, Zhao J (2020) Photoinduced Uptake and Oxidation of SO2 on Beijing Urban PM2.5. Environ Sci Technol 54:14868–14876. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c01532
Zhang T, Shen ZX, Su H, Liu SX, Zhou JM, Zhao ZZ, Wang QY, Prévôt ASH, Cao JJ (2021) Effects of Aerosol Water Content on the formation of secondary inorganic aerosol during a Winter Heavy PM2. 5 Pollution Episode in Xi'an, China. Atmos Environ 252:118304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2021.118304
Funding
This work was supported by the National Institute of Environmental Research (NIER) of the Ministry of Environment under grant no. NIER-2021–03-03–001 and NIER-2020–04-02–086 and the National Strategic Project-Fine particle (NRF-2017M3D8A1092019) of the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Ho Kim and Seung-Muk Yi supervised study design; Inho Song, Dae-Gon Kim, and Kwonho Jeon contributed to data collection and verification; Sangcheol Kim and Juyeon Yang performed data analyses and wrote the first draft of the manuscript; Sangcheol Kim, Juyeon Yang, Jieun Park, Inho Song, Dae-Gon Kim, Kwonho Jeon, Ho Kim, and Seung-Muk Yi contributed to the interpretation of the data. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Constantini Samara
Publisher's note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Kim, S., Yang, J., Park, J. et al. Health effects of PM2.5 constituents and source contributions in major metropolitan cities, South Korea. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29, 82873–82887 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-21592-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-21592-1