Skip to main content

Advertisement

Springer Nature Link
Log in

Water-energy nexus: desalination technologies and renewable energy sources

  • Review Article
  • Published:
Environmental Science and Pollution Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Rapid population growth and industrialization have contributed to a dramatic decline in the supply of freshwater. As a result, desalination is an important choice to solve the global problem of water scarcity. Nevertheless, the hyper-saline by-product, the high capital costs, and the high energy demands currently met by fossil fuels are key obstacles to the widespread adoption of desalination systems. Furthermore, desalination plants powered by fossil fuels have negative environmental impacts due to greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions. In contrast to fossil fuels, renewable energy is abundant and clean and is therefore a promising alternative for powering desalination plants. This is why the water-energy nexus is a crucial step towards a sustainable future. Therefore, the integration of renewable energy sources (RES) into desalination is very important. The main objective of this review to analyze and evaluate desalination technologies (thermal-based and membrane-based) and RES (solar, wind, hydropower, geothermal, and biomass) that could be combined as an integrated process. Social-economic factors, environmental concerns, current challenges, and future research areas for both desalination and RES are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10

Similar content being viewed by others

Explore related subjects

Discover the latest articles and news from researchers in related subjects, suggested using machine learning.

Abbreviations

BC:

Brine concentrator

BCr:

Brine crystallizer

BOD5 :

Biological oxygen demand

COD:

Chemical oxygen demand

DO:

Dissolved oxygen

ED:

Electrodialysis

EDM:

Electrodialysis metathesis

EDR:

Electrodialysis reversal

EFC:

Eutectic freeze crystallization

FO:

Forward osmosis

GHGs:

Greenhouse gases

HPRO:

High-pressure reverse osmosis

MCr:

Membrane crystallization

MD:

Membrane distillation

MED:

Membrane crystallization

MED:

Multi-effect distillation

MENA:

Middle East and North Africa

MSW:

Municipal solid waste

NF:

Nanofiltration

OARO:

Osmotically assisted reverse osmosis

PV:

Photovoltaic

RES:

Renewable energy sources

RO:

Reverse osmosis

SD:

Spray dryer

TDS:

Total dissolved solids

TSS:

Total suspended solids

WAIV:

Wind-aided intensified evaporation

WHO:

World Health Organization

References

  • Abdul-Wahab S, Charabi Y, al-Mahruqi AM, Osman I, Osman S (2019) Selection of the best solar photovoltaic (PV) for Oman. Sol Energy 188:1156–1168

    Google Scholar 

  • Ahmed M, Kumar R, Garudachari B, Thomas JP (2019) Performance evaluation of a thermoresponsive polyelectrolyte draw solution in a pilot scale forward osmosis seawater desalination system. Desalination 452:132–140

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alhaj M, Al-Ghamdi SG (2019) Why is powering thermal desalination with concentrated solar power expensive? Assessing economic feasibility and market commercialization barriers. Sol Energy 189:480–490

    Google Scholar 

  • Ali A, Quist-Jensen C, Macedonio F, Drioli E (2015) Application of membrane crystallization for minerals’ recovery from produced water. Membranes 5(4):772–792

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Khattawi A, Bayly A, Phillips A, Wilson D (2017) The design and scale-up of spray dried particle delivery systems. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 15(1):47–63

    Google Scholar 

  • Alnouri SY, Linke P, El-Halwagi MM (2017) Accounting for central and distributed zero liquid discharge options in interplant water network design. J Clean Prod 171:644–661

    Google Scholar 

  • Al-Shayji K, Aleisa E (2018) Characterizing the fossil fuel impacts in water desalination plants in Kuwait: a Life Cycle Assessment approach. Energy 158:681–692

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alspach B (2014) Produced water and salinity management: the desalination frontier. Am Water Works Assoc 106:47–52

    Google Scholar 

  • Arafat H (2017) Desalination sustainability: a technical, socioeconomic, and environmental approach. Elsevier, p 440

  • Asraf-Snir M, Gilron J, Oren Y (2018) Scaling of cation exchange membranes by gypsum at Donnan exchange and electrodialysis. J Membr Sci 567:28–38

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barrington DJ, Ho G (2014) Towards zero liquid discharge: the use of water auditing to identify water conservation measures. J Clean Prod 66:571–576

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bartholomew TV, Mey L, Arena JT, Siefert NS, Mauter MS (2017) Osmotically assisted reverse osmosis for high salinity brine treatment. Desalination 421:3–11

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bartholomew TV, Siefert NS, Mauter MS (2018) Cost optimization of osmotically assisted reverse osmosis. Environ Sci Technol 52(20):11813–11821

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Basile A, Curcio E, Inamuddin D (2018) Current trends and future developments on (bio-) membranes: membrane desalination systems: the next generation. Elsevier, p 534

  • Bazargan A (2018) A multidisciplinary introduction to desalination. Stylus Publishing, LLC. River Publishers, p 718

  • Bond R, Davis T, DeCarolis J, Dummer M (2015) Demonstration of a new electrodialysis technology to reduce the energy required for salinity management: treatment of RO concentrate with EDM. California Energy Commission, Energy Research and Development Division, p 108

  • Camacho LM, Fox JA, Ajedegba JO (2017) Optimization of electrodialysis metathesis (EDM) desalination using factorial design methodology. Desalination 403:136–143

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chen L-H, Huang A, Chen YR, Chen CH, Hsu CC, Tsai FY, Tung KL (2018) Omniphobic membranes for direct contact membrane distillation: effective deposition of zinc oxide nanoparticles. Desalination 428:255–263

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chen Q-B, Ren H, Tian Z, Sun L, Wang J (2019) Conversion and pre-concentration of SWRO reject brine into high solubility liquid salts (HSLS) by using electrodialysis metathesis. Sep Purif Technol 213:587–598

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chivavava J, Rodriguez-Pascual M, Lewis AE (2014) Effect of operating conditions on ice characteristics in continuous eutectic freeze crystallization. Chem Eng Technol 37(8):1314–1320

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Csereklyei Z, Qu S, Ancev T (2019) The effect of wind and solar power generation on wholesale electricity prices in Australia. Energy Policy 131:358–369

    Google Scholar 

  • Davenport DM, Deshmukh A, Werber JR, Elimelech M (2018) High-pressure reverse osmosis for energy-efficient hypersaline brine desalination: current status, design considerations, and research needs. Environ Sci Technol Lett 5(8):467–475

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Deng L, Ye H, Li X, Li P, Zhang J, Wang X, Zhu M, Hsiao BS (2018) Self-roughened omniphobic coatings on nanofibrous membrane for membrane distillation. Sep Purif Technol 206:14–25

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Deyab MA (2019) Enhancement of corrosion resistance in MSF desalination plants during acid cleaning operation by cationic surfactant. Desalination 456:32–37

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ding Z et al (2019) Performance analysis of a wind-solar hybrid power generation system. Energy Convers Manag 181:223–234

    Google Scholar 

  • Ehrlich R (2013) Renewable energy: a first course. CRC Press, p 464

  • Ejraei A, Aroon MA, Ziarati Saravani A (2019) Wastewater treatment using a hybrid system combining adsorption, photocatalytic degradation and membrane filtration processes. J Water Process Eng 28:45–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2019.01.003

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Filippini G, Al-Obaidi MA, Manenti F, Mujtaba IM (2018) Performance analysis of hybrid system of multi effect distillation and reverse osmosis for seawater desalination via modeling and simulation. Desalination 448:21–35

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fluid Technology Solutions Inc (2016) OsmoBC™ Integrated Membrane Systems For Industrial Wastewater Treatment. Fluid Technology Solutions, p 15

  • Fridell R (2015) Protecting Earth’s water supply. Lerner Publications, p 72

  • GEA Process Engineering (2019) GEA spray drying: small-scale solutions for R&D and production. GEA, p 20

  • Gilron J, Folkman Y, Savliev R, Waisman M, Kedem O (2003) WAIV—wind aided intensified evaporation for reduction of desalination brine volume. Desalination 158(1-3):205–214

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Global Water Intelligence (2016) IDA Desalination Yearbook 2016-2017, s.l.: Global Water Intelligence

  • Gude G (2018) Renewable energy powered desalination handbook: application and thermodynamics. Butterworth-Heinemann, p 622

  • Han XYXWXRJWCZX (2018) Preparation of chloride-free potash fertilizers by electrodialysis metathesis. Sep Purif Technol 191:144–152

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hossain M, Clauser C, Ewert M (2018a) The renewables cost challenge: Levelized cost of geothermal electric energy compared with other sources of primary energy—review and case study. Renew Sust Energ Rev 82:3683–3693

    Google Scholar 

  • Hossain M, Huda ASN, Mekhilef S, Seyedmahmoudian M, Horan B, Stojcevski A, Ahmed M (2018b) A state-of-the-art review of hydropower in Malaysia as renewable energy: current status and future prospects. Energy Strategy Rev 22:426–437

    Google Scholar 

  • Hua X, Zhang C, Wei J, Hu X, Wei H (2019) Wind turbine bionic blade design and performance analysis. J Vis Commun Image Represent 60:258–265

    Google Scholar 

  • IDA & GWI (2017) Global desalination market continues to grow, adding 4.2 million cubic meters per day in contracted capacity. International Desalination Association & Global Water Intelligence, Topsfield

    Google Scholar 

  • Ihm S et al (2016) Energy cost comparison between MSF, MED and SWRO: case studies for dual purpose plants. Desalination 397:116–125

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • International Energy Agency (2018) IEA World Energy Outlook 2018. s.l.: International Energy Agency

  • Israel A, Jehling M (2019) How modern are renewables? The misrecognition of traditional solar thermal energy in Peru’s energy transition. Energy Policy 133:110905

    Google Scholar 

  • Istirokhatun T, Dewi M, Ilma H, Susanto H (2018) Separation of antiscalants from reverse osmosis concentrates using nanofiltration. Desalination 429:105–110

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • IWA (2016) Desalination – Past, Present and Future. Internation Water Association, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Karmakar S et al (2019) Water quality parameter as a predictor of small watershed land cover. Ecol Indic 106:105462

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kesieme UK et al (2013) Economic analysis of desalination technologies in the context of carbon pricing, and opportunities for membrane distillation. Desalination 323:66–74

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Khiari W, Turki M, Belhadj J (2019) Power control strategy for PV/Wind reverse osmosis desalination without battery. Control Eng Pract 89:169–179

    Google Scholar 

  • Khoshrou I, Jafari Nasr MR, Bakhtari K (2017) New opportunities in mass and energy consumption of the Multi-Stage Flash Distillation type of brackish water desalination process. Sol Energy 153:115–125

    Google Scholar 

  • Kolliopoulos G, Martin JT, Papangelakis VG (2018) Energy requirements in the separation-regeneration step in forward osmosis using TMA–CO2–H2O as the draw solution. Chem Eng Res Des 140:166–174

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kucharska K, Hołowacz I, Konopacka-Łyskawa D, Rybarczyk P, Kamiński M (2018) Key issues in modeling and optimization of lignocellulosic biomass fermentative conversion to gaseous biofuels. Renew Energy 129:384–408

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Letcher TM (2016) Storing energy: with special reference to renewable energy sources. Elsevier, p 590

  • Li HX, Edwards DJ, Hosseini MR, Costin GP (2019a) A review on renewable energy transition in Australia: an updated depiction. J Clean Product 242

  • Li HX, Horan P, Luther MB, Ahmed TMF (2019b) Informed decision making of battery storage for solar-PV homes using smart meter data. Energy Build 198:491–502

    Google Scholar 

  • Liyanaarachchi S et al (2013) Problems in seawater industrial desalination processes and potential sustainable solutions: a review. Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol 13(2):203–214

    Google Scholar 

  • Lokare OR, Tavakkoli S, Khanna V, Vidic RD (2018) Importance of feed recirculation for the overall energy consumption in membrane distillation systems. Desalination 428:250–254

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mackey E, Seacord T (2008) Regional solution for concentration management. Water Reuse Research Foundation, p 150

  • Manju S, Sagar N (2017) Renewable energy integrated desalination: a sustainable solution to overcome future fresh-water scarcity in India. Renew Sust Energ Rev 73:594–609

    Google Scholar 

  • Manolis EN, Zagas TD, Karetsos GK, Poravou CA (2019) Ecological restrictions in forest biomass extraction for a sustainable renewable energy production. Renew Sust Energ Rev 110:290–297

    Google Scholar 

  • McGinnis RL, Hancock NT, Nowosielski-Slepowron MS, McGurgan GD (2013) Pilot demonstration of the NH3/CO2 forward osmosis desalination process on high salinity brines. Desalination 312:67–74

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mikhaylin S, Bazinet L (2016) Fouling on ion-exchange membranes: Classification, characterization and strategies of prevention and control. Adv Colloid Interf Sci 229:34–56

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Miremadi I, Saboohi Y, Arasti M (2019) The influence of public R&D and knowledge spillovers on the development of renewable energy sources: The case of the Nordic countries. Technol Forecast Soc Chang 146:450–463

    Google Scholar 

  • Mito MT, Ma X, Albuflasa H, Davies PA (2019) Reverse osmosis (RO) membrane desalination driven by wind and solar photovoltaic (PV) energy: state of the art and challenges for large-scale implementation. Renew Sust Energ Rev 112:669–685

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Murray B, McMinn D, Gilron J (2015) Waiv technology: an alternative solution for brine management: results of a full-scale demonstration trial conducted at a location near Roma in Queensland. Water 42(5)

  • Nalule VR (2018) Energy poverty and access challenges in Sub-Saharan Africa: The role of regionalism. s.l.:Springer

  • Nasr GG, Yule AJ, Bendig L (2013) Industrial sprays and atomization: design, analysis and applications. s.l.:Springer Science & Business Media

  • Naymushina O (2017) Equilibrium of Different Water Types of the Tomsk Region, Western Siberia, with Carbonate and Aluminosilicate Minerals. Procedia Earth Planet Sci 17:714–717

    Google Scholar 

  • Nazir MS et al (2019) Environmental impact and pollution-related challenges of renewable wind energy paradigm—a review. Sci Total Environ 683:436–444

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Negewo B (2012) Renewable energy desalination: an emerging solution to close the water gap in the Middle East and North Africa. World Bank Publications, p 232

  • Nunen JV, Panicot PA (2018) Electrodialysis metathesis hybrid technology scale up simulations to increase brackish water reverse osmosis recovery to 98-99%. XII Congreso Internacional de Aedy, Toledo

  • Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (2017) The land-water-energy nexus: biophysical and economic consequences. IWA Publishing, p 140

  • Pall Corporation (2019) Pall Disc Tube™ Module System Brochure. Pall Corporation, p 4

  • Pan S-Y, Snyder SW, Lin YJ, Chiang P-C (2018a) Electrokinetic desalination of brackish water and associated challenges in the water and energy nexus. Environ Sci: Water Res Technol 4:613–638

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pan S-Y, Snyder SW, Packman AI, Lin YJ, Chiang PC (2018b) Cooling water use in thermoelectric power generation and its associated challenges for addressing water-energy nexus. Water-Energy Nexus 1:26–41

    Google Scholar 

  • Pan S-Y, Haddad AZ, Kumar A, Wang S-W (2020) Brackish water desalination using reverse osmosis and capacitive deionization at the water-energy nexus. Water Res 183:116064

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Panagopoulos A (2020a) A comparative study on minimum and actual energy consumption for the treatment of desalination brine. Energy 212:118733

    Google Scholar 

  • Panagopoulos A (2020b) Process simulation and techno-economic assessment of a zero liquid discharge/multi-effect desalination/thermal vapor compression (ZLD/MED/TVC) system. Int J Energy Res 44(1):473–495

    Google Scholar 

  • Panagopoulos A (2020c) Techno-economic evaluation of a solar multi-effect distillation/thermal vapor compression hybrid system for brine treatment and salt recovery. Chem Eng Process Process Intensif 152:107934

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Panagopoulos A (2021) Techno-economic assessment of minimal liquid discharge (MLD) treatment systems for saline wastewater (brine) management and treatment. Process Saf Environ Protect 146:656–669

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Panagopoulos A, Haralambous K-J (2020a) Environmental impacts of desalination and brine treatment—challenges and mitigation measures. Mar Pollut Bull 161:111773

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Panagopoulos A, Haralambous K-J (2020b) Minimal Liquid Discharge (MLD) and Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) strategies for wastewater management and resource recovery—analysis, challenges and prospects. J Environ Chem Eng 8(5):104418

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Panagopoulos A, Haralambous K-J, Loizidou M (2019) Desalination brine disposal methods and treatment technologies—a review. Sci Total Environ 693:133545

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Panagopoulos A, Loizidou M, Haralambous K-J (2020) Stainless steel in thermal desalination and brine treatment: current status and prospects. Metals Mater Int 26:1463–1482

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Petersen LN, Poulsen NK, Niemann HH, Utzen C, Jørgensen JB (2017) An experimentally validated simulation model for a four-stage spray dryer. J Process Control 57:50–65

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pronk P, Infante Ferreira CA, Witkamp GJ (2008) Prevention of crystallization fouling during eutectic freeze crystallization in fluidized bed heat exchangers. Chem Eng Process Process Intensif 47(12):2140–2149

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Qureshi BA, Zubair SM (2016) Exergy and sensitivity analysis of electrodialysis reversal desalination plants. Desalination 394:195–203

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Raluy G, Serra L, Uche J (2006) Life cycle assessment of MSF, MED and RO desalination technologies. Energy 31(13):2361–2372

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Randall DG, Zinn C, Lewis AE (2014) Treatment of textile wastewaters using eutectic freeze crystallization. Water Sci Technol 70(4):736–741

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reig M, Casas S, Aladjem C, Valderrama C, Gibert O, Valero F, Centeno CM, Larrotcha E, Cortina JL (2014) Concentration of NaCl from seawater reverse osmosis brines for the chlor-alkali industry by electrodialysis. Desalination 342:107–117

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ruiz Salmón I, Luis P (2018) Membrane crystallization via membrane distillation. Chem Eng Process Process Intensif 123:258–271

    Google Scholar 

  • Sanmartino JA, Khayet M, García-Payo MC, el-Bakouri H, Riaza A (2017) Treatment of reverse osmosis brine by direct contact membrane distillation: chemical pretreatment approach. Desalination 420:79–90

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schantz AB et al (2018) Emerging investigators series: prospects and challenges for high-pressure reverse osmosis in minimizing concentrated waste streams. Environ Sci: Water Res Technol 4(7):894–908

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sherwin F (2017) The New Ocean Book. New Leaf Publishing Group, p 90

  • Siria A, Bocquet M-L, Bocquet L (2017) New avenues for the large-scale harvesting of blue energy. Nat Rev Chem 1:1–10

    Google Scholar 

  • Sovacool BK (2008) Valuing the greenhouse gas emissions from nuclear power: a critical survey. Energy Policy 36:2950–2963

    Google Scholar 

  • Spellman FR (2015) Reverse osmosis: a guide for the nonengineering professional. CRC Press, p 324

  • Stanford BD, Leising JF, Bond RG, Snyder SA (2010) Inland desalination: current practices, environmental implications, and case studies in Las Vegas, NV. In: Sustainability Science and Engineering. s.l. 2:327–350

  • Sun Y et al (2020) Integration of green and gray infrastructures for sponge city: water and energy nexus. Water-Energy Nexus 3:29–40

  • Tang Y, Ma X, Lai Z, Chen Y (2013) Energy analysis and environmental impacts of a MSW oxy-fuel incineration power plant in China. Energy Pol 60:132–141

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • The Dow Chemical Co (2017) DOW™ specialty membrane XUS180804 and XUS180802 reverse osmosis elements product data sheet. The Dow Chemical Co, Midland, MI, p 4

  • Thiede S, Kurle D, Herrmann C (2017) The water–energy nexus in manufacturing systems: framework and systematic improvement approach. CIRP Ann 66(1):49–52

    Google Scholar 

  • Tollefson J (2014) Power from the oceans: blue energy. Nat News 508:302–304

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tong T, Wallace AF, Zhao S, Wang Z (2019) Mineral scaling in membrane desalination: mechanisms, mitigation strategies, and feasibility of scaling-resistant membranes. J Membr Sci 579:52–69

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tun CM, Groth AM (2011) Sustainable integrated membrane contactor process for water reclamation, sodium sulfate salt and energy recovery from industrial effluent. Desalination 283:187–192

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Twidell J, Weir T (2015) Renewable energy resources. Routledge, p 784

  • U.S. EIA (2019) Annual energy outlook 2019. U.S. Energy Information Administration, p 20

  • Valladares Linares R, Li Z, Yangali-Quintanilla V, Ghaffour N, Amy G, Leiknes T, Vrouwenvelder JS (2016) Life cycle cost of a hybrid forward osmosis—low pressure reverse osmosis system for seawater desalination and wastewater recovery. Water Res 88:225–234

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Walker WS, Kim Y, Lawler DF (2014) Treatment of model inland brackish groundwater reverse osmosis concentrate with electrodialysis—Part II: Sensitivity to voltage application and membranes. Desalination 345:128–135

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Waly T, Kennedy MD, Witkamp GJ, Amy G, Schippers JC (2012) The role of inorganic ions in the calcium carbonate scaling of seawater reverse osmosis systems. Desalination 284:279–287

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • WDR (2018) Water Desalination ReporT. WDR 54(43):4

  • Whitaker S (2013) Fundamental principles of heat transfer. Elsevier, p 574

  • WHO (2005) Water for life: making it happen. World Health Organization, p 38

  • Wijesuriya DTP et al (2017) Reduction of solar PV payback period using optimally placed reflectors. Energy Procedia 34:480–489

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams P, Ahmad M, Connolly B, Oatley-Radcliffe D (2015) Technology for freeze concentration in the desalination industry. Desalination 356:314–327

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • World Bank (2012) Renewable energy desalination: an emerging solution to close the water gap in the Middle East and North Africa (English). World Ban, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Xiao Z, Zheng R, Liu Y, He H, Yuan X, Ji Y, Li D, Yin H, Zhang Y, Li XM, He T (2019) Slippery for scaling resistance in membrane distillation: a novel porous micropillared superhydrophobic surface. Water Res 155:152–161

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yan H et al (2018) Multistage-batch electrodialysis to concentrate high-salinity solutions: process optimisation, water transport, and energy consumption. J Membr Sci 570-571:245–257

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhao J, Wang M, Lababidi HMS, al-Adwani H, Gleason KK (2018) A review of heterogeneous nucleation of calcium carbonate and control strategies for scale formation in multi-stage flash (MSF) desalination plants. Desalination 442:75–88

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao D, Lee LY, Ong SL, Chowdhury P, Siah KB, Ng HY (2019) Electrodialysis reversal for industrial reverse osmosis brine treatment. Sep Purif Technol 213:339–347

    CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Availability of data and materials

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, 9 Iroon Polytechniou St., Zografou, 15780, Athens, Greece

    Argyris Panagopoulos

Authors
  1. Argyris Panagopoulos
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author inPubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

All the research has been done by the author: Argyris Panagopoulos.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Argyris Panagopoulos.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The author declares that he has no competing interests.

Additional information

Responsible Editor: Philippe Garrigues

Publisher’s note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Highlights

• Renewable energy-based desalination is a solution to water scarcity.

• Membrane- and thermal-based desalination technologies are evaluated.

• Renewable energy options for desalination are analyzed.

• Challenges and prospects for RES-based desalination options are presented.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Panagopoulos, A. Water-energy nexus: desalination technologies and renewable energy sources. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28, 21009–21022 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-13332-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-13332-8

Keywords

Profiles

  1. Argyris Panagopoulos View author profile