Abstract
The aim of the present review paper was to identify the potential mediator and moderator variables involved in the recommendation of which types (functions) of imagery are the greatest use to the performer. The current review has proven that the efficacy in using imagery as a mediator of the relationship between imagery ability and cognitive imagery use. Particularly, it has been consistently found that athletes who use motivational general-mastery (MG-M) imagery report higher levels of both self-confidence and self-efficacy. As moderator variables, the reviewed studies have revealed that the stage of skill learning has a differential effect on the type of imagery used by athletes. Firstly, in the early stages of skill acquisition, novices may use imagery primarily for its cognitive specific (CS) function to assist in the organization of information (about the skill or strategy to be learnt). Secondly, in the autonomous stage of learning, athletes reported their use of imagery for MG-M function. Typically, MG-M imagery is mostly used in competition and CS imagery is mostly in practice, with motivational specific (MS) and motivational general-arousal (MG-A) imagery the least used in both these settings. However, the present review also showed that athletes at higher competitive levels used all five functions of imagery to a greater extent in both training and competition than do athletes at lower levels. In addition, this review indicated that athletes in closed-skill sports use more cognitive imagery functions [CS and cognitive general (CG)] than athletes in open-skill sports. While, athletes in open-skilled sports used significantly more MG-A imagery than those in closed-skill sports. It has also been shown that CG imagery is used more in such team sports (i.e., soccer) to build or maintain confidence and self-efficacy, and the CS imagery is used to improve sport performance (i.e., passing, dribbling). In conclusion, the data obtained in the present review have shown that self-efficacy as factors that may facilitate the effectiveness of imagery use by athletes. Thus, athletes report using imagery for all five functions (CG, CS, MG-A, MG-M, and MS imagery), MG-M and CS imagery are typically the most frequently employed. Whereas, MG-M and CG functions used to build or maintain confidence and self-efficacy, and CS function used to improve skill learning and sport performance. From an applied perspective, sport psychologists and fitness trainers can be implemented mental imagery training according to their athlete levels, types of skills, the intended outcome for the imagery use, phase of learning, and sport situations.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Callow N, Waters A (2005) The effect of kinesthetic imagery on the sport confidence of flat-race horse jockeys. Psychol Sport Exerc 6:443–459
Moran A (2004) Sport and exercise psychology: a critical introduction. Routledge, Hove
Cumming J, Williams SE (2012) The role of imagery in performance. In: Murphy S (ed) Handbook of sport and performance psychology. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 213–232
Cumming J, Williams SE (2014) Imagery. In: Eklund RC, Tenenbuam G (eds) Encyclopedia of sport and exercise psychology. Sage, Los Angeles, pp 369–373
Martin KA, Moritz SE, Hall C (1999) Imagery use in sport: a literature review and applied model. Sport Psychol 13:245–268
Cumming J, Ramsey R (2009) Sport imagery interventions. In: Mellalieu S, Hanton S (eds) Advances in applied sport psychology: a review. Routledge, London, pp 5–36
Murphy S, Nordin SM, Cumming J (2008) Imagery in sport, exercise and dance. In: Horn T (ed) Advances in sport and exercise psychology. Human Kinetics, Champaign, pp 297–324
Driskell JE, Copper C, Moran A (1994) Does mental practice enhance performance? J Appl Psychol 79:481–492
Hinshaw KE (1991) The effect of mental practice on motor skill performance: critical evaluation and meta-analysis. Imagin Cogn Pers 11:3–35
Paivio A (1985) Cognitive and motivational functions of imagery in human performance. Can J Appl Sport Sci 10:22s–28s
Guillot A, Collet C (2008) Construction of the motor imagery integrative model in sport: a review and theoretical investigations of motor imagery use. Int Rev Sport Exerc Psychol 1(1):31–44
Munroe KJ, Giacobbi P, Hall CR, Weinberg RS (2000) The four Ws of imagery use: where, when, why, and what. Sport Psychol 14:119–137
Hall CR, Mack DE, Paivio A, Hausenblaus HA (1998) Imagery use by athletes: development of the sport imagery questionnaire. Int J Sport Psychol 23:1–17
Callow N, Hardy L (2001) Types of imagery associated with sport confidence in netball players of varying skill levels. J Appl Sport Psychol 13:1–17
Nordin SM, Cumming J (2008) Types and functions of athletes’ imagery: testing predictions from the applied model of imagery use by examining effectiveness. Int J Sport Exerc Psychol 6:189–206
Short SE, Monsma EV, Short M (2004) Is what you see really what you get? Athletes’ perceptions of imagery functions. Sport Psychol 18:341–349
Bandura A (1986) Social foundations of thought and action. Prentice-Hall, New York
Bandura A (1997) Self-efficacy: the exercise of control. Freeman, New York
Vealey RS (2010) Conceptualization of sport confidence and competitive orientation: preliminary investigation and instrument development. J Sport Psychol 8:221–246
Callow N, Hardy L, Hall C (2001) The effects of a motivational general-mastery imagery intervention on the sport confidence of high-level badminton players. Res Q Exerc Sport 72:389–400
Moritz SE, Hall CR, Martin KA, Vadocz E (1996) What are confident athletes imagining? An examination of image content. Sport Psychol 10:171–179
Jones MV, Mace RD, Bray SR, MacRae AW, Stockbride C (2002) The impact of motivational imagery on the emotional state and self-efficacy levels of novice climbers. J Sport Behav 25:57–73
Abma CL, Fry MD, Li Y, Relyea C (2002) Differences in imagery content and imagery ability between high and low confident track and field athletes. J Appl Sport Psychol 14:67–75
Mills KD, Munroe KJ, Hall CR (2000) The relationship between imagery and self-efficacy in competitive athletics. Imagin Cogn Pers 20:33–39
Short SE, Short MW (2005) Differences between high and low-confident football players on imagery functions: a consideration of the athletes’ perceptions. J Appl Sport Psychol 17:197–208
Levy AR, Perry J, Nicholls AR, Larkin D, Davies J (2015) Sources of sport confidence, imagery type and performance among competitive athletes: the mediating role of sports confidence. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 55(7–8):835–844
Feltz DL, Riessinger CA (1990) Effects on in vivo emotive imagery and performance feedback on self-efficacy and muscular endurance. J Sport Exerc Psychol 12:132–143
Garza DL, Feltz DL (1998) Effects of selected mental practice techniques on performance ratings, self-efficacy, and competition confidence of competitive figure skaters. Sport Psychol 12:1–15
McKenzie AD, Howe B (1997) The effect of imagery on self-efficacy for a motor skill. Int J Sports Psychol 28:196–210
Short SE, Bruggeman JM, Engel SG, Marback TL, Wang LJ, Willadsen A et al (2002) The effect of imagery function and imagery direction on self-efficacy and performance on a golf-putting task. Sport Psychol 16:48–67
Beauchamp MR, Bray SR, Albinson JG (2002) Pre-competition imagery, self-efficacy and performance in collegiate golfers. J Sports Sci 20:697–705
Nordin SM, Cumming J (2005) More than meets the eye: investigating imagery type, direction, and outcome. Sport Psychol 19:1–17
Weinberg RS, Gould D (2003) Foundations of sport and exercise psychology, 3rd edn. Human Kinetics, Champaign
Murphy SM, Jowdy DP (1992) Imagery and mental practice. In: Horn TS (ed) Advances in sport psychology. Human Kinetics, Champaign, pp 221–250
Hall CR, Munroe-Chandler KJ, Cumming J, Law B, Ramsey R, Murphy L (2009) Imagery and observational learning use and their relationship to sport confidence. J Sports Sci 27:327–337
Salmon J, Hall C, Haslam I (1994) The use of imagery by soccer players. J Appl Sport Psychol 6(1):116–133
Arvinen-Barrow M, Weigand DA, Thomas S et al (2007) Elite and novice athletes’ imagery use in open and closed sports. J Appl Sport Psychol 19:93–104
Seif-Barghi T, Kordi R, Memari A-H, Mansournia M-A, Jalali-Ghomi M (2012) The effect of an ecological imagery program on soccer performance of elite players. Asian J Sports Med 3(2):81–89
White A, Hardy L (1998) An in-depth analysis of the uses of imagery by high-level slalom canoeists and artistic gymnasts. Sport Psychol 12:387–403
Cumming J, Hall CR (2002) Athletes’ use of imagery in the off-season. Sport Psychol 16:160–172
Munroe-Chandler K, Hall C, Fishburne G, Murphy L, Hall ND (2012) Effects of a cognitive specific imagery intervention on the soccer skill performance of young athletes: age group comparisons. Psychol Sport Exerc 13(3):324–331
Munroe-Chandler K, Hall C, Fishburne G (2008) Playing with confidence: the relationship between imagery use and self-confidence and self-efficacy in youth soccer players. J Sports Sci 26:1539–1546
Carron AV, Chelladurai P (1981) Cohesiveness as a factor in sport performance. Int Rev Sport Sociol 12:49–60
Fenker RM, Lambiotte JG (1987) A performance enhancement program for a college football team: one incredible season. Sport Psychol 1:224–236
Rushall BS (1988) Covert modeling as a procedure for altering an elite athlete’s psychological state. Sport Psychol 2:131–140
MacIntyre T, Moran A (1996) Imagery use among canoeists: a worldwide survey of novice, intermediate, and elite slalomists. J Appl Sport Psychol 8:S132
Veraksa A, Gorovaya A (2012) Imagery training efficacy among novice soccer players. Procedia Soc Behav Sci 33:338–342
Munroe K, Hall C, Simms S, Weinberg R (1998) The influence of type of sport and time of season on athletes’ use of imagery. Sport Psychol 12:440–449
Vealey RS, Greenleaf CA (2001) Seeing is believing: understanding and using imagery in sport. In: Williams JM (ed) Applied sport psychology: personal growth to peak performance. Mayfield Publishing Company, Mountain View, pp 247–283
Cumming J (2008) Investigating the relationship between exercise imagery, leisure time exercise behavior, and self-efficacy. J Appl Sport Psychol 20:184–198
Goss H, Hall C, Buckolz E, Fishburne G (1986) Imagery ability and the acquisition and retention of movements. Mem Cognit 14:469–477
Robin N, Dominique L, Toussaint L, Blandin Y, Guillot A, Le Her M (2007) Effect of motor imagery training on service return accuracy in tennis: the role of imagery ability. Int J Sport Exerc Psychol 2:175–186
Hall CR, Buckolz E, Fishburne G (1992) Imagery and the acquisition of motor skills. Can J Sport Sci 17:19–27
Rodgers WM, Hall CR, Buckholz E (1991) The effect of an imagery training program on imagery ability, imagery use and figure skating performance. J Appl Sport Psychol 3:109–125
Hall CR, Martin KA (1997) Measuring movement imagery abilities: a revision of the Movement Imagery Questionnaire. J Ment Imagery 21:143–154
Monsma EV, Overby LY (2004) The relationship between imagery and competitive anxiety in ballet auditions. J Dance Med Sci 8:11–18
Gregg M, Hall C (2006) Measurement of motivational imagery abilities in sport. J Sports Sci 24(9):961–971
Hall C, Pongrac J (1983) Movement imagery questionnaire. University of Western Ontario, London
Hall CR (1998) Measuring imagery abilities and imagery use. In: Duda JL (ed) Advances in sport and exercise psychology measurement. Fitness Information Technology, Morgantown, pp 165–172
Williams SE, Cumming J (2011) Measuring athlete imagery ability: the sport imagery ability questionnaire. J Sport Exerc Psychol 33(3):416–440
Ruiz MC, Watt AP (2014) Psychometric characteristics of the Spanish version of the Sport Imagery Questionnaire. Psicothema 26(2):267–272
Hall C (2001) Imagery in sport and exercise. In: Singer RN, Hausenblas H, Janelle CM (eds) Handbook of sport psychology. John Wiley and Son, New York, pp 529–549
Jeannerod M (2001) Neural simulation of action: a unifying mechanism for motor cognition. NeuroImage 14:103–109
Williams SE, Cumming J, Ntoumanis N, Nordin-Bates SM, Ramsey R, Hall CR (2012) Further validation and development of the Movement Imagery Questionnaire. J Sport Exerc Psychol 34:621–646
Bauman AE, Sallis JF, Dzewaltowski DA et al (2002) Toward a better understanding of the influences on physical activity: the role of determinants, correlates, causal variables, mediators, moderators, and confounders. Am J Prev Med 23(2):5–14
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Funding
No sources of funding were used to assist in the preparation of this review.
Conflict of interest
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Ethical approval
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Informed consent
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Slimani, M., Chamari, K., Boudhiba, D. et al. Mediator and moderator variables of imagery use-motor learning and sport performance relationships: a narrative review. Sport Sci Health 12, 1–9 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11332-016-0265-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11332-016-0265-1