Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Occurrence of serum antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii and associated risk factors in donkeys from central Kenya

  • Regular Articles
  • Published:
Tropical Animal Health and Production Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Toxoplasma gondii is an intracellular parasite of zoonotic concern and economic importance in humans and animals, respectively. This study was conducted to determine the occurrence of T. gondii and associated risk factors in domestic donkeys from Kirinyaga and Meru counties in Kenya. Blood samples were collected from 363 randomly selected donkeys for detection of antibodies to T. gondii using a commercial kit ID Screen® Toxoplasmosis Multi-species indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The data on risk factors were collected by interviewing donkey owners using epidemiological questionnaire. Serum antibodies to T. gondii were detected in 26.4% (95% CI: 22.2–31.3) of the donkeys. The analysis showed that age of donkeys (OR = 2.484, 95% CI: 1.315–4.693; p = 0.005) was associated with increased risk for T. gondii seroprevalence while county of origin of donkeys (OR = 0.182, 95% CI: 0.083–0.400; p = 0.000), residential place of donkeys (OR = 0.301, 95% CI: 0.136–0.665; p = 0.003), rearing chicken (OR = 0.203, 95% CI: 0.064–0.644; p = 0.007), and donkey production system (OR = 0.644, 95% CI: 0.456–0.909; p = 0.012) were associated with reduced risk of T. gondii seroprevalence. This is the first report to provide epidemiological information on T. gondii infection among donkeys in Kenya. The presence of antibodies to T. gondii in donkeys suggests the high potential of transmission to other animals and humans. Regular monitoring and control of T. gondii infection in donkeys were recommended in the study area.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Data Availability

The data sets used and analyzed in this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.

Code availability

Not applicable.

References

  • Ali, A., Omer, T., Ullah, A., Haleem, A., Naseem, M., Ullah, Seemab, M., Shamim, F., Tehreem, A., Bilal, M.,& Khan, M. N. (2021). Epidemiological survey of Toxoplasma gondii and associated risk factors in ruminant species of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province of Pakistan. Journal of Parasitology Research, 2021(1),1-8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Al-Malki E. S. (2021). Toxoplasmosis: stages of the protozoan life cycle and risk assessment in humans and animals for an enhanced awareness and an improved socio-economic status. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences, 28(1), 962–969. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2020.11.007

  • Alvarado-Esquivel, C., Rodríguez-Peña, S., Villena, I., & Dubey, J. P. (2012). Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in domestic horses in Durango State, Mexico. Journal of Parasitology, 98(5), 944–945. doi:https://doi.org/10.1645/ge-3174.1

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arruda, I. F., Freitas, W. A. , Carrijo, K. F. , Paz, P. S., Silva, M. M. , Sudré, A. P. , Marques-Santos, F. , Fonseca, A. B., Amendoeira, M. R. , & Millar, P. R. (2020). Occurrence of anti-Toxoplasma gondii antibodies and risk factors associated with infection in equids slaughtered for human consumption in Brazil. Revista Brasileira de Parasitologia Veterinária, 29(3), 1-8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bártová, E., Sedlák, K., Kobédová, K., Budíková, M., Atuman, Y.J., & Kamani, J. (2017). Seroprevalence and risk factors of Neospora spp. and Toxoplasma gondii infections among horses and donkeys in Nigeria, West Africa. Acta Parasitologica, 62,606-609.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chege, N. J., Ngetich, K. A., & Bor, E. K. (2015). Consequences of the violent behavior towards donkeys in Kibirichia Ward, Meru Central Sub-county, Meru County, Kenya. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 20(5), 60-67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Climate change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). (2016). Climate Risk Profile for Meru County. Kenya county climate risk profile series report.

  • Dahoo, I. R., Martin, W., & Stryhn, H. (2009). Veterinary Epidemiologic Research, 2nd ed.AVC Inc., Charlottetown, PEI, Canada.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davoust, B., Mediannikov, O., Roqueplo, C., Perret, C., Demoncheaux, J.P., Sambou, M.,Guillot, J., & Blaga, R. (2015). Enquete de seroprevalence de la toxoplasmose animale au Senegal. Bulletin de la Société de Pathologie Exotique, 108, 73–77.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dubey, J. P. (1998). Toxoplasma gondii oocyst survival under defined temperatures. Journal of Parasitology, 84,862–865.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dubey J. P. (2004). Toxoplasmosis- A waterborne zoonosis. Veterinary Parasitology, 126, 57–72. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2004. 09.005

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dubey, J. P. (2010a). Toxoplasmosis of Animals and Humans. 2010, Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press; 1-338.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dubey, J. P. (2010b). Toxoplasma gondii Infections in Chickens (Gallus domesticus): Prevalence, Clinical Disease, Diagnosis and Public Health Significance. Zoonoses and Public Health, 57(1), 60–73.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dubey, J. P., Karhemere, S., Dahl, E., Sreekumar, C., Diabaté, A., Dabiré, K. R., Vianna, M. C. B., Kwok, O. C. H., & Lehmann, T. (2005). First biologic and genetic characterization of Toxoplasma gondii isolates from chickens from Africa (Democratic Republic of Congo, Mali, Burkina Faso, and Kenya). Journal of Parasitology, 91(1), 69–72.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dubey, J. P., Ness, S. L., Kwok, O. C. H., Choudhary, S., Mittel, L. D., & Divers, T.J. (2014). Seropositivity of Toxoplasma gondii in domestic donkeys (Equus asinus) and isolation of T. gondii from cats. Veterinary Parasitology, 199, 18-23.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dubey, J. P., Murata, F. H. A., Cerqueira-Cézar, C. K., & Kwok, O. C. H. (2020). Toxoplasma gondii infections in horses, donkeys, and other equids: The last decade. Research in Veterinary Science, 132,492-499. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2020.07.005

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fereig, R. M., Mahmoud, M. Y. A. H., Mohamed, S. G. A., AbouLaila, M. R., Abdel-Wahab, A., Osman, S. A., Zidan, S. A., El-Khodary, S. A., Mohamed, A. E. A., & Nishikawa, Y. (2016). Seroprevalence and epidemiology of Toxoplasma gondii in farm animals in different regions of Egypt. Veterinary Parasitology, Regional Studies and Reports, 3-4, 1–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fernández-Escobar, M., Calero-Bernal, R., Benavides, J., Regidor-Cerrillo, J., Guerrero-Molina M. C., Gutiérrez-Expósito, D., Collantes-Fernández E., & Ortega-Mora, L. M. (2020). Isolation and genetic characterization of Toxoplasma gondii in Spanish sheep flocks. Parasite and Vectors, 13(1),1-14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fernando, P. & Starkey, P. (2004). Donkeys and development: Socio-economic aspects of donkey use in Africa. In: Fielding, D. and Starkey, P., editors. Donkeys, People and Development. A Resource Book in the Animal Traction Network for Eastern and Southern Africa (ATNESA). ACP-EU Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA), Netherlands.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foroutan, M., Fakhric, Y., Riahid, S. M., Ebrahimpour, S., Namroodif, S., Taghipourb, A., Spoting, A., Gamblei, H.R., & Rostami, A. (2019). The global seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in pigs: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Veterinary Parasitology, 269, 42–52.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gennari, S. M., Esmerini, P. O., Lopes, M. G., Soares, H. S., Vitaliano, S. N., Cabral, A. D., Pena, H.F. J., Horta, M.C., Cavalcante, P. H., Fortes, K.P., & Villalobos, E. M. C. (2015). Occurrence of antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii and its isolation and genotyping in donkeys, mules, and horses in Brazil. Veterinary Parasitology, 209(1-2), 129–132.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gichure, M., Onono, J., Wahome, R. & Gathura, P. (2020). Analysis of the benefits of production challenges of working donkeys in small holder farming systems in Kenya. Veterinary World, 13(11), 2356-2352.

    Google Scholar 

  • Government of Kenya (GoK). (2018). Kirinyaga County Government. County Integrated Development Plan 2018–2022.

  • Government of Kenya (GoK). (2018). County Government of Meru. County Integrated Development Plan 2018–2022.

  • Government of Kenya. (2012). Meat Control Act Cap 356 Laws of Kenya. Government of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haridy, F.M., Saleh, N.M., Khalil, H.H., & Morsy, T.A. (2010). Anti-Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in working donkeys and donkey’s milk in greater Cairo, Egypt. Egypt. Journal of Egyptian Society of Parasitology, 40, 459–464.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hill, D. E. & Dubey, J. P. (2013). Toxoplasma gondii prevalence in farm animals in the United States. International Journal of Parasitology, 43(2), 107-113.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hussain M. A., Stitt, V.,Szabo, E. A., & Nelan, B. (2017). Toxoplasma gondii in the Food supply. Pathogens, 6(2), 21.

    PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hussein, M., Almufarrej, S. I, Aljumaah, R., Al-Saiady, M., Gar-Elnabi, A. R., & Abu Zaid, T. S. (2011). Serological prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and its association with abortion in sheep in Saudi Arabia. Acta Veterinaria(Beograd), 61(4), 405-414.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ishaku, B.I., & Kumra, S. K. (2019). Detection of Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in trade donkeys (Equus asinus) at Ganawuri district market, Riyom Local Government Area, Plateau State, North Central Nigeria. International Journal of One Health, 5, 60-64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. (2019). Trade Statistics. Nairobi, Kenya.

    Google Scholar 

  • Khan, A. H. & Noordin, R. (2020). Serological and molecular rapid diagnostic tests for Toxoplasma gondii infection in humans and animals. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, 39, 19-30.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Li, X., Ni, H. B., Ren, W. X., Jiang, J., Gong, Q. L., & Zhang, X. X. (2020). Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in horses: A global systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Tropica, 201,105222.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Machacova, T., Bartova, E., Di Loria, A., Sedlak, K., Mariani, U., Fusco, G., Fulgione, D., Veneziano, V., & Dubey, J.P. (2014). Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in donkeys (Equus asinus) in Italy. Journal of Veterinary Medical Sciences, 75(2),265-267.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maichomo, M. W., Karanja-Lumumba, T., Olum, M. O., Magero, J., Oketch, T., & Nyoike, S. N. (2019). The status of donkey slaughter and its implication on community livelihoods. KALRO report submitted to the Brook East Africa.

  • Mancianti, F., Nardoni, S., Papini, R., Mugnaini, L., Martini, M., Altomonte, I., Salari, F., D’Ascenzi, C. & Dubey, J.P. (2014). Detection and genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii DNA in the blood and milk of naturally infected donkeys (Equus asinus). Parasites and Vectors, 7,165.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Markovic, M., Ivovic, V., Stajner, T., Djokic, V., Klun, I., Bobic, B., Nikolic ´A., & Djurkovic-Djakovic, O. (2014). Evidence for genetic diversity of Toxoplasma gondii in selected intermediate hosts in Serbia. Comparative Immunology Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, 37(3), 173–179.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meng, Q. F., Li, D., Yao, G. Z., Zou, Y., Cong, W., & Shan, X. F. (2018). Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection and variables associated with seropositivity in donkeys in eastern China. Parasite, 25, 66.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Miao, Q., Wang, X., She, L.N., Fan, Y.T., Yuan, F.Z., Yang, J.F., Zhu, X.Q., & Zou, C. (2013). Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in horses and donkeys in Yunnan Province, Southwestern China. Parasite and Vectors, 6,168.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mohamed-Cherif, A., Ait-Oudhia, K., & Khelef, D. (2015). Detection of anti-Toxoplasma gondii antibodies among horses (Equus caballus) and donkeys (Equus asinus) in Tiaret province, northwestern Algeria. Revue de Médecine Vétérinaire, 166, 271–274.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morris, M. I., Fischer, S. A., Ison, M. G. (2010). Infections Transmitted by Transplantation. Infectious Diseases Clinic of North America, 24, 497-514.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mose, J. M., Kagira, J. M., Karanja, S. M., Ngotho, M., Kamau, D. M., Njuguna, A.N., & Maina, N. W. (2016). Detection of Natural Toxoplasma gondii Infection in chicken in Thika Region of Kenya using nested polymerase chain reaction. BioMed Research International, 2016, 1-5

    Google Scholar 

  • Mose, J. M., Kagira, J. M., Kamau., D. N., Maina., N.W., Ngotho, M., & Karanja, S. M. (2020). A review on the present advances on studies of toxoplasmosis in Eastern Africa. Biomed Research International, 2020, 1-12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Munhoz, A. D., Souza, M. A., Costa, S. C. L., Freitas, J. S., Silva, A. N. D, Lacerda, L. C., Cruz, R. D. S., Albuquerque, G. R., & Pereira, M. J. S. (2019). Factors associated with the distribution of natural Toxoplasma gondii infection among equids in Northeastern Brazil. Brazilian Journal of Veterinary Parasitology, 28, 283-290.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Njuguna, A.N., Kagira, J.M., Karanja, S. M. Ngotho, M., Mutharia, L., & Maina, N.W. (2017). Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and other gastrointestinal parasites in domestic cats from households in Thika Region, Kenya. BioMed Research International, 2017, 1-6

    Google Scholar 

  • Oliveira, E., Albuquerque P. P. F., Souza, O. L. No, Faria, E. B., Pinheiro, J. W., & Mota, R. A. (2013). Occurrence of antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii in mules and donkeys in the northeast of Brazil. Journal of Parasitology, 99, 343–345.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Opsteegh, M., Maas, M., Schares, G., & van der Giessen, J. (2016). Relationship between seroprevalence in the main livestock species and presence of Toxoplasma gondii in meat (GP/EFSA/BIOHAZ/2013/01). An extensive literature review. Final report. EFSA Supporting Publications 13, 996E-n/a.

  • Ouslimani, S.F., Tennah, S., Azzag, N., Derdour, S. Y., China, B., & Ghalmi, F. (2019). Seroepidemiological study of exposure to Toxoplasma gondii in Algeria and Analysis of risk factors. Veterinary World, 12, 2007-2016.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Paștiu, A. I., Gyorke, A., Villena, I., Balea, A., Niculae, M., Pall, E., Spînu, M., & Cozma, V. (2015). Comparative assessment of T. gondii infection in Romania using three serological methods. Bulletin of University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, 72(1), 102-105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ribeiro, M. J., Rosa, M. H., Bruhn, F. R., Giarcia, Ade, M., Rocha, C. M., Guimaraes, A.M. (2016). Sero-epidemiology of Sarcocystis neurona, Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora spp among horses in the south of the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. Brazilian Journal of Veterinary Parasitology, 25,142-150.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Robert-Gangneux, F., & Darde, M. L. (2012). Epidemiology of and Diagnostic Strategies for Toxoplasmosis. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 25, 264-296.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rono, J. K., Mukunya, A., Mugothi, E., Otiende, D. & Mwangi, M. (2018). Report for Situation Assessment on Community Donkey Gantries. Ministry of Pastoral Economy and Fisheries,

  • Shadia, M.A., Abdalla, M.I., Nabaa, K.A. and Rabab, H.M (2013). The first report on sero-prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in working horses and donkeys in the Sudan. Journal of Life Sciences, 7(12): 1284-1287.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stelzer, S., Basso, W., Silván, J. B., Ortega-Mora, L. M., Maksimov, P., Gethmann, J., Conraths, F.J., & Schares, G. (2019). Toxoplasma gondii infection and toxoplasmosis in farm animals: Risk factors and economic impact. Food and Waterborne Parasitology, 15:e00037

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Tenter, A. M., Heckeroth, A. R., & Weiss, L. M. (2000). Toxoplasma gondii: from animals to humans. International Journal for Parasitology, 30, 1217–1258.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thiong’o, S. K., Ichagichu, J. M., Ngotho, M., Aboge, G. O., Kagira, J. M., Karanja, S. M., & Maina, M. M. (2016). Use of the nested polymerase chain reaction for detection of Toxoplasma gondii in slaughterhouse workers in Thika District, Kenya. South African Medical Journal, 106 (4), 417–419.

    Google Scholar 

  • Torgerson, P. R., Devleesschauwer, B., Praet, N., Speybroeck, N., Willingham, A. L., Kasuga, F., Rokni, M. B., Zhou, X. N., Fevre, E. M., Sripa, B., Gargouri, N., Furst, T., Budke, C. M., Carabin, H., Kirk, M. D., Angulo, F. J., Havelaar, A., & de Silva, N. (2015). World Health Organization Estimates of the Global and Regional Disease Burden of 11 Foodborne Parasitic Diseases, 2010: A Data Synthesis. PLoS Medicine, 12(12): e1001920.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Z. D., Liu, H. H., Ma, Z. X., Ma, H. Y., Li, Z. Y., Yang, Z. B., Zhu, X.Q., Xu, B., Wei, F., & Liu, Q. (2017). Toxoplasma gondii infection in immunocompromised patients: a systematic review and Meta-Analysis. Frontiers in Microbiology, 8(389), 1-12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, L. M., & Dubey, J. P. (2009). Toxoplasmosis: a history of clinical observations. International Journal for Parasitology, 39(8), 895–901.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yan, C., Liang, L. J., Zheng, K. Y., & Zhu, X. Q. (2016) . Impact of environmental factors on the emergence, transmission and distribution of Toxoplasma gondii. Parasites and Vectors, 9,137.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Younis, E. E., Abou-Zeid, N. Z., Zakaria, M., & Mahmoud, M. R. (2015). Epidemiological studies on toxoplasmosis in small ruminants and equines in Dakahlia governorate, Egypt. Assiut Veterinary Medical Journal, 61,(145), 22–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zeybek, H., Dündar, B., Altintas, K., & Güngör, C. (1998). The seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in equids. Türkiye Parazitoloji Dergisi, 22, 424–427.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, X. X., Shi, W., Zhang, N. Z., Shi, K., Li, J. M., Xu, P., Zhao, Q., & Du, R. (2017). Prevalence and genetic characterization of Toxoplasma gondii in donkeys in northeastern China. Infection, Genetics and Evolution, 54,455-457.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, Q., Wang, Q., Shen, H., Zhang, Y., Zhang, S., Li, X., Acharya, G. (2018). Seroepidemiological map of Toxoplasma gondii infection and associated risk factors in preconception period in China: a nationwide cross-sectional study. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Research, 44, 1134–1139.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge the staff at the Department of Public Health, Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Nairobi particularly Mr. Alfred Mainga for their technical support in the laboratory work. We would also like to thank donkey owners from the study areas for their participation and co-operation.

Funding

This work was supported by a grant from Meru University of Science and Technology (MUST), 6th MUST call for individual and bridging funding research proposals.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Veterinary Pathology, Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053-00625, Kangemi, Kenya

    Fredrick Ojiambo Obonyo, Ndichu Maingi & Samuel Maina Githigia

  2. Department of Animal Science, Meru University of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 972-60200, Meru, Kenya

    Fredrick Ojiambo Obonyo

  3. Department of Clinical Studies, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053-00625, Kangemi, Kenya

    Peter Kimeli

  4. Department of Biochemistry, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 30197-00100, Nairobi, Kenya

    Evans Nyaega Nyaboga

Authors
  1. Fredrick Ojiambo Obonyo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Ndichu Maingi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Samuel Maina Githigia
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Peter Kimeli
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Evans Nyaega Nyaboga
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

FOO, NM, SMG, and ENN conceived and designed the research. FOO collected data, conducted the experiments, and drafted the manuscript. FOO and PK analyzed and interpreted data. NM, SMG, and ENN critically revised the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Fredrick Ojiambo Obonyo.

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval

This study was approved by the Biosafety, Animal Use and Ethics Committee, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, Kenya, reference number FVM BAUEC/2019/240, and informed consent was obtained before sampling at the household level from the donkey owner.

Consent to participate

All authors have consented to participate.

Consent for publication

All authors have approved to publish.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

Disclaimer

The findings and conclusions in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position of the participating institutions or the funding organization.

Additional information

Publisher's note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary file1 (JPG 371 KB)

Supplementary file2 (DOCX 26 KB)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Obonyo, F., Maingi, N., Githigia, S. et al. Occurrence of serum antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii and associated risk factors in donkeys from central Kenya. Trop Anim Health Prod 54, 77 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-022-03079-w

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-022-03079-w

Keywords

Search

Navigation