Skip to main content
Log in

Critical thinking as culture: Teaching post-Soviet teachers in Kazakhstan

  • Published:
International Review of Education Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This paper explores the question of whether critical thinking can eventually become part of the cultural fabric in Kazakhstan, a country whose Soviet educational system not only trained teachers to memorise, lecture and intimidate students but also created a culture in educational institutions fraught with many fear-based behaviours engendering competitiveness, intolerance and other hostile behaviours antithetical to critical thinking and an open, democratic society. While educational reform can have profound effects on a nation, education is but one system in a complex network of governmental and cultural systems, and change must be borne by many. This paper reviews literature and presents qualitative data gathered through interviews with Soviet-trained teachers. The authors recommend that teachers should embrace student-centred techniques and critical thinking methodologies, as well as shift from a fear-based, authoritarian, top-down system of relating to students and colleagues to one of cooperation, openness and fairness. Such a reform will take repetitive, intensive and experiential training as well as regular assessments of progress.

Résumé

La pensée critique comme culture : formation des enseignants post-soviétiques au Kazakhstan – Les auteurs de cet article soulèvent la question de savoir si la pensée critique pourrait s’introduire dans le tissu culturel du Kazakhstan. Le système éducatif soviétique de ce pays formait les enseignants à mémoriser, réprimander et à intimider les élèves, et instaurait en outre au sein des institutions éducatives une culture lourde de comportements fondés sur la peur et engendrant la rivalité, l’intolérance et d’autres conduites hostiles, à l’opposé de la pensée critique et d’une société ouverte et démocratique. Si une réforme éducative peut profondément marquer une nation, l’éducation n’est qu’un système inséré dans un réseau complexe de structures gouvernementales et culturelles, et le changement doit être porté par un grand nombre. Les auteurs recensent la documentation et présentent les données qualitatives collectées lors d’entretiens avec des enseignants formés à l’époque soviétique. Les auteurs recommandent que les professeurs adoptent des techniques centrées sur l’apprenant et des méthodologies qui développent la pensée critique, et par ailleurs passent d’un type de relation avec les élèves et collègues qui est autoritaire, vertical et fondé sur la peur, à un système de coopération, d’ouverture et d’équité. Une réforme de ce type exigera des mesures répétées, intensives et expérientielles de formation ainsi que des évaluations régulières des progrès.

Zusammenfassung

Kritisches Denken als Kultur: postsowjetische Lehrerbildung in Kasachstan – In diesem Artikel geht es um die Frage, ob kritisches Denken eines Tages Bestandteil des kulturellen Gefüges in Kasachstan werden kann. Das sowjetische Bildungssystem des Landes setzte in der Lehrerausbildung auf Frontalunterricht, Auswendiglernen und Einschüchterung der Schüler und erzeugte zudem in den Bildungseinrichtungen eine generelle Angstkultur, was zu Konkurrenzdruck, Intoleranz und anderen feindseligen Verhaltensweisen führte, die dem kritischen Denken und einer offenen, demokratischen Gesellschaft entgegenwirkten. Zwar können Bildungsreformen eine Nation tiefgreifend verändern, doch ist die Bildung nur ein System in einem komplexen Geflecht politischer und kultureller Systeme und ein Wandel muss von vielen ausgehen. In diesem Artikel werden vorhandene Veröffentlichungen besprochen und qualitative Daten präsentiert, die aus Gesprächen mit Lehrkräften stammen, deren Ausbildung in die Sowjetzeit fiel. Die Autoren empfehlen, dass sich Lehrkräfte mit schülerzentrierten Techniken und Methoden des kritischen Denkens vertraut machen, sich von autoritären, von Angst geprägten und hierarchischen Lehrer-Schüler- und Lehrer-Lehrer-Beziehungen verabschieden und zu einem System der Zusammenarbeit, Offenheit und Fairness übergehen. Eine solche Reform erfordert wiederholte, intensive und erfahrungsbezogene Schulungen sowie regelmäßige Erfolgskontrollen.

Resumen

El pensamiento crítico como cultura: capacitación de docentes post-soviéticos en Kazajstán – Con este trabajo, los autores analizan el interrogante de si el pensamiento crítico puede llegar a formar parte del tejido cultural en Kazajstán, un país donde el sistema educativo soviético no solamente entrenaba a los docentes para memorizar y aleccionar e intimidar a los estudiantes, sino que también creaba en las instituciones educativas una cultura cargada por muchos comportamientos basados en el miedo y que engendraban intolerancia y otros comportamientos hostiles, completamente opuestos a un pensamiento crítico y una sociedad abierta y democrática. Si bien una reforma educativa puede producir efectos profundos en una nación, la educación no es más que uno de los sistemas que integran una compleja red de sistemas gubernamentales y culturales, y el cambio necesita de muchos orígenes. En este trabajo, los autores pasan revista a la literatura y presentan datos cualitativos, recabados mediante entrevistas que realizaron a docentes formados bajo el régimen soviético. Los autores recomiendan que los educadores adopten técnicas centradas en el estudiante y metodologías de razonamiento crítico, y que cambien un sistema basado en el miedo, autoritario y verticalista de relato a estudiantes y colegas por un enfoque de cooperación, con las mentes abiertas y actuando con justicia. Esta reforma exigirá un entrenamiento repetitivo, intensivo y empírico, así como una evaluación periódica de su evolución.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. The Foundation for Critical Thinking, a non-profit, California-based organisation, works with teachers, administrators, parents and businesspeople to develop their critical thinking abilities through the cultivation of fair-mindedness.

References

  • Altbach, P. (2003). Introduction to higher education theme issue on the academic profession in Central and Eastern Europe. Higher Education, 4, 389.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Altbach, P. (2005). Academic corruption: The continuing challenge. International Higher Education, 38(Winter), 5–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Institutes for Research (2001). The 2000–2001 evaluation of the reading and writing for critical thinking project. Washington, DC: Open Society Institute. Retrieved May 18, 2009, from http://www.udlap.mx/promueve/ciedd/CR/pensamiento/ReadingandWritingforCriticalThinkingEvaluationSummary.pdf.

  • Atkinson, D. (1997). A critical approach to critical thinking in TESOL. TESOL Quarterly, 31(1), 71–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Atkinson, D., & Kaplan, R. (1994). A critical approach to critical thinking in ESL. Paper presented at the 28th annual TESOL convention, March 1994, Baltimore, MD.

  • Beyer, B. K. (1987). Practical strategies for the teaching of thinking. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the Culture of Learning. Educational Researcher, 18(1), 32–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burkhalter, N. (1995). A Vygotsky-based curriculum for teaching persuasive writing to elementary school children. Language Arts, 72(3), 192–205.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burkhalter, N., & Shegebayev, M. (2011). The critical thinking movement in Kazakhstan: A progress report. Research in Comparative and International Education, 5(4).

  • Chan, H. M., & Yan, H. K. T. (2008). Is there a geography of thought for East–West differences? In M. Mason (Ed.), Critical thinking and learning (pp. 44–64). Malden, MA: Blackwell.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Clinchy, B. V. (1994). On critical thinking and connected knowing. In K. S. Walters (Ed.), Re-thinking reason: New perspectives in critical thinking (pp. 33–43). Albany, NY: SUNY Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crawford, A., Saul, W., Mathews, S., & Makinster, J. (2005). Teaching and thinking strategies for the thinking classroom. New York: IDEA Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deriglazova, L. (2005). To fear or to respect? Two approaches to military reform in Russia. Journal of Power Institutions in Post-Soviet Societies, 3, 71–86.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeYoung, A. (1996). Issues in post-Soviet school reform: The case of Kazakhstan. ERIC ED 403 104.

  • DeYoung, A. (2006). Problems and trends in education in Central Asia since 1990: The case of general secondary education in Kyrgyzstan. Central Asian Survey, 25(4), 499–514.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ennis, R. (1962). A concept of critical thinking. Harvard Educational Review, 32, 81–111.

    Google Scholar 

  • Facione, P. (1990). The Delphi Report. Critical thinking: Statement of expert consensus for purposes of educational assessment and instruction. Millbrae, CA: California Academia Press (also available from ERIC ED 315 423).

  • Ingleton, C. (1999). Emotion in learning: A neglected dynamic. HERDSA (Higher Education Research and Development Society of Australasia) annual international conference, Melbourne. Retrieved January 28, 2010, from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.89.2515&rep=rep1&type=pdf.

  • Jowett, G., & O’Donnell, V. (2005). Propaganda and persuasion (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klooster, D. (2001). What is critical thinking? The Thinking Classroom, 1(4), 36–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lipman, M. (1991). Thinking in education. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Long, D., & Long, R. (1999). Education of teachers in Russia. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mason, M. (Ed.). (2008). Critical thinking and learning. In M. Mason (Ed.), Critical thinking and learning (pp. 1–11). Malden, MA: Blackwell.

  • Ministry of Education, Republic of Kazakshtan. (2004). Materialy k Razrabotke Natsional’nogo Standarta Srednego Obschego Obrazovaniya Respubliki Kazahstan [Materials to develop curriculum standards for the secondary general education of the Republic of Kazakhstan]. Retrieved March 27, 2009, from http://www.edu.gov.kz/ru/obrazovanie_v_kazakhstane/srednee_obshchee/materialy_k_razrabotke_nacionalnogo_standarta_srednego_obshchego_ob/.

  • Nisbett, R. E. (2003). The geography of thought. New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nosich, G. (2009). Learning to think things through: A Guide to critical thinking across the curriculum (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Flahavan, J., & Tierney, R. (1991). Reading, writing, and critical thinking. In L. Idol & B. F. Jones (Eds.), Educational values and cognitive instruction: Implications and reform (pp. 41–64). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paul, R. W. (1984). Critical thinking: Fundamental to education for a free society. Educational Leadership, 42(1), 4–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reading and writing for critical thinking. (nd). Retrieved May 18, 2009, from http://ct-net.net/ct_about.

  • Ryan, J., & Louie, K. (2008). False dichotomy? “Western” and “Confucian” concepts of scholarship and learning. In M. Mason (Ed.), Critical thinking and learning (pp. 65–78). Malden, MA: Blackwell.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Street, B. (2003). What’s “new” in new literacy studies? Critical approaches to literacy and practice. Current Issues in Comparative Education, 5(2), 1–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Temple, C. (2000). What can we learn from 15,000 teachers in Central Europe and Central Asia? The Reading Teacher, 54(3), 312–315.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webber, S. (2000). School, reform and society in the new Russia. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zajda, J. (2003). Educational reform and transformation in Russia: Why education reforms fail. European Education, 35(1), 58–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zajda, J., & Zajda, R. (2007). Policy shifts in higher education in the Russian Federation. European Education, 39(3), 16–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zogla, I. (2001). Democratisation in Latvian education: Teachers’ attitudinal change. European Journal of Teacher Education, 24(2), 143–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zogla, I. (2006). Leading educators’ relearning in a post-Soviet Country. Theory into Practice, 45(2), 133–142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Nancy Burkhalter.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Burkhalter, N., Shegebayev, M.R. Critical thinking as culture: Teaching post-Soviet teachers in Kazakhstan. Int Rev Educ 58, 55–72 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-012-9285-5

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-012-9285-5

Keywords

Navigation