Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Evaluation of the Environmental Supports Scale with a Community Sample of Adolescents

  • Published:
Prevention Science Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Environmental sources of psychosocial support have been found to modulate or protect against the development of psychopathology and risk behavior among adolescents. Capturing sources of environmental support across multiple developmental contexts requires the availability of well-validated, concise assessments—of which there are few in the existing literature. In order to address this need, the current study explored the factor structure, concurrent and convergent validity of the Environmental Supports Scale (ESS; Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 117; 395–417, 1991) with a community sample of adolescents. An unconstrained exploratory factor analysis revealed a separate factor for home, school, and neighborhood settings. Internal consistency and test-retest reliability were evaluated for each factor. Concurrent and predictive validity analyses revealed that the ESS was associated in the expected directions across a range of constructs relevant to adolescent development including internalizing symptoms, well-being, external influences, and engagement in risk behavior. Convergent validity for the neighborhood context was established with an assessment of neighborhood environmental adversity. A brief assessment of perceived environmental support across key developmental contexts provides an important tool for research on resilience processes during adolescence and may help illuminate key protective factors and inform intervention and prevention efforts.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Arbona, C., & Power, T. G. (2003). Parental attachment, self-esteem, and antisocial behaviors among African American, European American, and Mexican American adolescents. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 50, 40–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bass, J. K., & Lambert, S. F. (2004). Urban adolescents’ perceptions of their neighborhoods: An examination of spatial dependence. Journal of Community Psychology, 32, 277–293.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bond, L., Butler, H., Thomas, L., Carlin, J., Glover, S., Bowes, G., & Patton, G. (2007). Social and school connectedness in early secondary school as predictors of late teenage substance use, mental health, and academic outcomes. Journal of Adolescent Health, 40, 357.e9–357.e18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Borowsky, I. W., Ireland, M., & Resnick, M. D. (2002). Violence risk and protective factors among youth held back in school. Ambulatory Pediatrics, 2, 475–484.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boudreault-Bouchard, A. M., Dion, J., Hains, J., Vandermeerschen, J., Laberge, L., & Perron, M. (2013). Impact of parental emotional support and coercive control on adolescents’ self-esteem and psychological distress: Results of a four-year longitudinal study. Journal of Adolescence, 36, 695–704.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bowen, G. L., Woolley, M. E., Richman, J. M., & Bowen, N. K. (2001). Brief intervention in schools: The School Success Profile. Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention, 1, 43–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bronfenbrenner, U. (1999). Environments in developmental perspective: Theoretical and operational models. In S. L. Friedman & T. D. Wachs (Eds.), Measuring environment across the life span: Emerging methods and concepts (pp. 3–28). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Brook, J. S., Brook, D. W., De La Rosa, M., Whiteman, M., & Montoya, I. D. (1999). The role of parents in protecting Colombian adolescents from delinquency and marijuana use. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 153, 457–464.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Caldwell, B. M., & Bradley, R. H. (1984). Home observation for measurement of the environment. Little Rock: University of Arkansas at Little Rock.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cauce, A. M., Cruz, R., Corona, M., & Conger, R. (2011). The face of the future: Risk and resilience in minority youth. In Health disparities in youth and families (pp. 13-32). Springer New York.

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2002). Youth risk behavior surveillance—United States, 2001. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 51, 1–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chorpita, B. F., Yim, L., Moffitt, C., Umemoto, L. A., & Francis, S. E. (2000). Assessment of symptoms of DSM-IV anxiety and depression in children: A revised child anxiety and depression scale. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 835–855.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2002). A developmental psychopathology perspective on adolescence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 6–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 155–159.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Costa, F. M., Jessor, R., & Turbin, M. S. (1999). Transition into adolescent problem drinking: The role of psychosocial risk and protective factors. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 60, 480–490.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eccles, J. S., & Roeser, R. W. (2009). Schools, academic motivation, and stage‐environment fit. In R. M. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.) Handbook of adolescent psychology (pp. 404-434). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

  • Elliott, D. S., Huizinga, D., & Ageton, S. S. (1985). Explaining delinquency and drug use. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D. F., Spitz, A. M., Edwards, V., … & Marks, J. S. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14, 245-258.

  • Fergus, S., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2005). Adolescent resilience: A framework for understanding healthy development in the face of risk. Annual Review of Public Health, 26, 399–419.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Floyd, F. J., & Widaman, K. F. (1995). Factor analysis in the development and refinement of clinical assessment instruments. Psychological Assessment, 7, 286–299.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Griffin, K. W., Botvin, G. J., Scheier, L. M., Diaz, T., & Miller, N. L. (2000). Parenting practices as predictors of substance use, delinquency, and aggression among urban minority youth: moderating effects of family structure and gender. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 14, 174–184.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gullo, M. J., & Dawe, S. (2008). Impulsivity and adolescent substance use: Rashly dismissed as “all-bad”? Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 32, 1507–1518.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hope, T. L., Adams, C., Reynolds, L., Powers, D., Perez, R. A., & Kelley, M. L. (1999). Parent vs. self-report: Contributions toward diagnosis of adolescent psychopathology. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 21, 349–363.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jarrett, R. L. (1997). Bringing families back in: Neighborhood effects on child development. Neighborhood Poverty, 2, 48–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kenny, M. E., Gallagher, L. A., Alvarez-Salvat, R., & Silsby, J. (2002). Sources of support and psychological distress among academically successful inner-city youth. Adolescence, 141, 161–182.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kurlychek, M. C., Krohn, M. D., Dong, B., Hall, G. P., & Lizotte, A. J. (2012). Protection from risk exploration of when and how neighborhood-level factors can reduce violent youth outcomes. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 10, 83–106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laible, D. J., Carlo, G., & Roesch, S. C. (2004). Pathways to self-esteem in late adolescence: The role of parent and peer attachment, empathy, and social behaviours. Journal of Adolescence, 27, 703–716.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leffert, N., Benson, P. L., Scales, P. C., Sharma, A. R., Drake, D. R., & Blyth, D. A. (1998). Developmental assets: Measurement and prediction of risk behaviors among adolescents. Applied Developmental Science, 2, 209–230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leventhal, T., Selner-O’Hagan, M. B., Brooks-Gunn, J., Bingenheimer, J. B., & Earls, F. J. (2004). The Homelife Interview from the Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods: Assessment of parenting and home environment for 3-to 15-year-olds. Parenting, 4, 211–241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lloyd-Richardson, E. E., Papandonatos, G., Kazura, A., Stanton, C., & Niaura, R. (2002). Differentiating stages of smoking intensity among adolescents: Stage-specific psychological and social influences. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 998–1009.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luthar, S. S., Cicchetti, D., & Becker, B. (2000). The construct of resilience: A critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. Child Development, 71, 543–562.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • MacPherson, L., Reynolds, E. K., Daughters, S. B., Wang, F., Cassidy, J., Mayes, L. C., et al. (2010). Positive and negative reinforcement underlying risk behavior in early adolescents. Prevention Science, 11, 331–342.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S., & Obradović, J. (2006). Competence and resilience in development. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094, 13–27.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCaskill, J. W., & Lakey, B. (2000). Perceived support, social undermining, and emotion: Idiosyncratic and shared perspectives of adolescents and their families. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 820–832.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moffitt, T. E. (1993). Adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent antisocial behavior: a developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100, 674–701.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moos, R. H., & Moos, B. S. (1994). Manual for the family environment scale. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moos, R. H., Insel, P. M., & Humphrey, B. (1974). Preliminary manual for family environment scale, work environment scale, group environment scale. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paul, C., Fitzjohn, J., Herbison, P., & Dickson, N. (2000). The determinants of sexual intercourse before age 16. Journal of Adolescent Health, 27, 136–147.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, C. H., Buser, T. J., & Westburg, N. G. (2010). Effects of familial attachment, social support, involvement, and self-esteem on youth substance use and sexual risk taking. The Family Journal, 18, 369–376.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, E. K., MacPherson, L., Matusiewicz, A. K., Schreiber, W. M., & Lejuez, C. W. (2011). Discrepancy between mother and child reports of parental knowledge and the relation to risk behavior engagement. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 40, 67–79.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roosa, M. W., & Beals, J. (1990). Measurement issues in family assessment: The case of the Family Environment Scale. Family Process, 29, 191–198.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roosa, M. W., White, R., Zeiders, K. H., & Tein, J. Y. (2009). An examination of the role of perceptions in neighborhood research. Journal of Community Psychology, 37, 327–341.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image (p. 326). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rueger, S. Y., Malecki, C. K., & Demaray, M. K. (2010). Relationship between multiple sources of perceived social support and psychological and academic adjustment in early adolescence: Comparisons across gender. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39, 47–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, A., Pettit, G. S., & Mize, J. (1998). Horizontal qualities in parent–child relationships: Parallels with and possible consequences for children’s peer relationships. Developmental Review, 18, 313–352.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., Stiller, J. D., & Lynch, J. H. (1994). Representations of relationships to teachers, parents, and friends as predictors of academic motivation and self-esteem. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 14, 226–249.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sameroff, A. J., & Fiese, B. H. (2000). Transactional regulation: The developmental ecology of early intervention. Handbook of Early Childhood Intervention, 2, 135–159.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sanford, K., Bingham, C. R., & Zucker, R. A. (1999). Validity issues with the Family Environment Scale: Psychometric resolution and research application with alcoholic families. Psychological Assessment, 11, 315–325.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sesma Jr, A., Mannes, M., & Scales, P. C. (2013). Positive adaptation, resilience and the developmental assets framework. In S. Goldstein & R. B. Brooks (Eds.) Handbook of resilience in children (pp. 427-442). Springer US.

  • Shochet, I. M., Dadds, M. R., Ham, D., & Montague, R. (2006). School connectedness is an underemphasized parameter in adolescent mental health: Results of a community prediction study. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 35, 170–179.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stattin, H., & Kerr, M. (2000). Parental monitoring: A reinterpretation. Child Development, 71, 1072–1085.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steinberg, L. (2008). A social neuroscience perspective on adolescent risk-taking. Developmental Review, 28, 78–106.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Stice, E., Rohde, P., Gau, J., & Ochner, C. (2011). Relation of depression to perceived social support: Results from a randomized adolescent depression prevention trial. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 49, 361–366.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Stiffman, A. R., Dore, P., & Cunningham, R. M. (1996). Violent behavior in adolescents and young adults: A person and environment model. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 5, 487–501.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Story, M., Neumark-Sztainer, D., & French, S. (2002). Individual and environmental influences on adolescent eating behaviors. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 102, S40–S51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Suldo, S. M., Friedrich, A. A., White, T., Farmer, J., Minch, D., & Michalowski, J. (2009). Teacher support and adolescents’ subjective well-being: A mixed-methods investigation. School Psychology Review, 38, 67–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Totsika, V., & Sylva, K. (2004). The home observation for measurement of the environment revisited. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 9, 25–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tyler, F. B., Tyler, S. L., Echeverry, J. J., & Zea, M. C. (1991). Making it on the streets in Bogotá: A psychosocial study of street youth. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 117, 395–417.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • United States Census Bureau (2014). ACS Demographic and Housing Estimates: 2010-2014 American Community Survey 5-year Estimates. Retrieved from http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_14_5YR_DP05&prodType=table on December 14th, 2015.

  • United States Census Bureau (2014). Household Income: 2013. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2014/acs/acsbr13-02.pdf on November 14th, 2015.

  • Waters, E., Stewart‐Brown, S., & Fitzpatrick, R. (2003). Agreement between adolescent self‐report and parent reports of health and well‐being: Results of an epidemiological study. Child: Care, Health and Development, 29, 501–509.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Whiteside-Mansell, L., & Corwyn, R. F. (2003). Mean and covariance structures analyses: An examination of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale among adolescents and adults. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 63, 163–173.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zuberi, A. (2013). Neighborhoods and parenting: Assessing the influence of neighborhood quality on the parental monitoring of youth. Youth & Society, 0044118X13502365.

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Center for Addictions, Personality, and Emotion Research, University of Maryland, 2103 Cole Student Activities Building, College Park, MD, 20742-4411, USA

    Cristina M. Risco, Carl W. Lejuez & Laura MacPherson

  2. Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA

    Anahi D. Collado

  3. Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA

    Elizabeth K. Reynolds

Authors
  1. Cristina M. Risco
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Anahi D. Collado
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Elizabeth K. Reynolds
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Carl W. Lejuez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Laura MacPherson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Cristina M. Risco or Laura MacPherson.

Ethics declarations

Funding

This research was supported in part by a grant from the National Institute on Drug Abuse R01 DA018647.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed Consent

Informed consent/assent was obtained from all individual participants and their primary caregiver(s) included in the study.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Risco, C.M., Collado, A.D., Reynolds, E.K. et al. Evaluation of the Environmental Supports Scale with a Community Sample of Adolescents. Prev Sci 17, 493–502 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-016-0637-4

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-016-0637-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation