Abstract
Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is a promising tool for scientific discovery and clinical application. However, its utility depends upon replicable reporting. We evaluate reporting of sociodemographics in fNIRS studies of speech and language impairment and asked the following: (1) Do refereed fNIRS publications report participant sociodemographics? (2) For what reasons are participants excluded from analysis? This systematic review was preregistered with PROSPERO (CRD42022342959) and followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses protocol. Searches in August 2022 included the terms: (a) fNIRS or functional near-infrared spectroscopy or NIRS or near-infrared spectroscopy, (b) speech or language, and (c) disorder or impairment or delay. Searches yielded 38 qualifying studies from 1997 to present. Eight studies (5%) reported at least partial information on race or ethnicity. Few studies reported SES (26%) or language background (47%). Most studies reported geographic location (100%) and gender/sex (89%). Underreporting of sociodemographics in fNIRS studies of speech and language impairment hinders the generalizability of findings. Replicable reporting is imperative for advancing the utility of fNIRS.
Similar content being viewed by others
Availability of Data and Materials
The authors confirm that all data analyzed during this study are included in this published article.
References
Note: * denotes study included in this review.
All of Us Research Program Investigators. (2019). The “All of Us” research program. New England Journal of Medicine, 381(7), 668–676. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMsr1809937
American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association: The official guide to APA style (7th ed.).
American Psychological Association. (2021). Equity, diversity, and inclusion in APA journals. Retrieved July 29, 2022, from https://www.apa.org/pubs/authors/equity-diversity-inclusion
American Psychological Association Journals. (2021). Equity, diversity, and inclusion toolkit for journal editors. Retrieved September 19, 2022, from https://www.apa.org/pubs/authors/equity-diversity-inclusion-toolkit
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (2016). Scope of practice in speech-language pathology. Retrieved October 3, 2022, from https://www.asha.org/policy/sp2016-00343/
*Anderson, C. A., Wiggins, I. M., Kitterick, P. T., & Hartley, D. E. H. (2017). Adaptive benefit of cross-modal plasticity following cochlear implantation in deaf adults. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 114(38), 10256.
Annamma, S. A., Connor, D., & Ferri, B. (2013). Dis/ability critical race studies (DisCrit): Theorizing at the intersections of race and dis/ability. Race Ethnicity and Education, 16(1), 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2012.730511
*Arai, H., Takano, M., Miyakawa, K., Ota, T., Takahashi, T., Asaka, H., & Kawaguchi, T. (2006). A quantitative near-infrared spectroscopy study: A decrease in cerebral hemoglobin oxygenation in Alzheimer’s disease and mild cognitive impairment. Brain and Cognition, 61, 189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2005.12.012
Ayaz, H., Baker, W., Blaney, G., Boas, D., Bortfeld, H., Brady, K., Brake, J., Brigadoi, S., Buckley, E. M., Carp, S., Cooper, R., Cowdrick, K., Culver, J., Dan, I., Dehghani, H., Devor, A., Durduran, T., Eggebrecht, A., Emberson, L., … & Zhou, W. (2022). Optical imaging and spectroscopy for the study of the human brain: Status report. Neurophotonics, 9(S2), S24001. https://doi.org/10.1117/1.NPh.9.S2.S24001
Bauer, G. R. (2014). Incorporating intersectionality theory into population health research methodology: Challenges and the potential to advance health equity. Social Science & Medicine, 110, 10–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.03.022
*Bisconti, S., Shulkin, M., Hu, X., Basura, G. J., Kileny, P. R., & Kovelman, I. (2016). Functional near-infrared spectroscopy brain imaging investigation of phonological awareness and passage comprehension abilities in adult recipients of cochlear implants. Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research, 59(2), 239. https://doi.org/10.1044/2015_JSLHR-L-14-0278
Black, L. I., Vahratian, A., & Hoffman, H. J. (2015). Communication disorders and use of intervention services among children aged 3–17 years: United States, 2012 (NCHS Data Brief no. 205). National Center for Health Statistics. Retrieved August 2, 2023, from https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db205.pdf
Buchanan, N. T., Perez, M., Prinstein, M. J., & Thurston, I. B. (2021). Upending racism in psychological science: Strategies to change how science is conducted, reported, reviewed, and disseminated. American Psychologist, 76(7), 1097–1112. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000905
Butler, L. K., Kiran, S., & Tager-Flusberg, H. (2020). Functional near-infrared spectroscopy in the study of speech and language impairment across the life span: A systematic review. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 29(3), 1674–1701. https://doi.org/10.1044/2020_AJSLP-19-00050
*Caliandro, P., Silvestri, G., Padua, L., Bianchi, M. L. E., Simbolotti, C., Russo, G., Masciullo, M., & Rossini, P. M. (2013). fNIRS evaluation during a phonemic verbal task reveals prefrontal hypometabolism in patients affected by myotonic dystrophy type 1. Clinical Neurophysiology, 124, 2269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2013.05.010
Chaudhary, U., Xia, B., Silvoni, S., Cohen, L. G., & Birbaumer, N. (2017). Brain–computer interface–based communication in the completely locked-in state. PLoS Biology, 15(1), e1002593. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1002593
Choy, T., Baker, E., & Stavropoulos, K. (2021). Systemic racism in EEG research: Considerations and potential solutions. Affective Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42761-021-00050-0
Cochrane. (2022). A tool for assessing risk of bias due to missing evidence in a synthesis (ROB-ME). https://methods.cochrane.org/bias/resources/rob-me
Cosgrove, K. T., McDermott, T. J., White, E. J., Mosconi, M. W., Thompson, W. K., Paulus, M. P., Cardenas-Iniguez, C., & Aupperle, R. L. (2022). Limits to the generalizability of resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging studies of youth: An examination of ABCD Study® baseline data. Brain Imaging and Behavior, 16(4), 1919–1925. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11682-022-00665-2
Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalising the intersection of race and sex: A black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 140, 25–42. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315582924-10
Crenshaw, K. (1991). Mapping the margins: Identity politics, intersectionality, and violence against women. Stanford Law Review, 43(6), 1241–1299. https://doi.org/10.2307/1229039
Crosson, B., Ford, A., McGregor, K. M., Meinzer, M., Cheshkov, S., Li, X., Walker-Batson, D., & Briggs, R. W. (2010). Functional imaging and related techniques: An introduction for rehabilitation researchers. Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development, 47(2), vii–xxxiv. https://doi.org/10.1682/jrrd.2010.02.0017
*Cutini, S., Szucs, D., Mead, N., Huss, M., & Goswami, U. (2016). Atypical right hemisphere response to slow temporal modulations in children with developmental dyslexia. NeuroImage, 143, 40–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.08.012
*Dewey, R. S., & Hartley, D. E. H. (2015). Cortical cross-modal plasticity following deafness measured using functional near-infrared spectroscopy. Hearing Research, 325, 55–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heares.2015.03.007
*Edwards, L. A., Wagner, J. B., Tager-Flusberg, H., & Nelson, C. A. (2017). Differences in neural correlates of speech perception in 3 month olds at high and low risk for autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 47(10), 3125–3138. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3222-1
Etienne, A., Laroia, T., Weigle, H., Afelin, A., Kelly, S. K., Krishnan, A., & Grover, P. (2020). Novel electrodes for reliable eeg recordings on coarse and curly hair. Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. Annual International Conference.
*Fallgatter, A. J., Sitzmann, M. R. L., Heidrich, A., Mueller, T. J., & Strik, W. K. (1997). Loss of functional hemispheric asymmetry in Alzheimer’s dementia assessed with near-infrared spectroscopy. Cognitive Brain Research, 6, 67–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0926-6410(97)00016-5
Fawzy, A., Wu, T. D., Wang, K., Robinson, M. L., Farha, J., Bradke, A., Golden, S. H., Xu, Y., & Garibaldi, B. T. (2022). Racial and ethnic discrepancy in pulse oximetry and delayed identification of treatment eligibility among patients with COVID-19. JAMA Internal Medicine, 182(7), 730–738. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2022.1906
Ferrari, M., & Quaresima, V. (2012). A brief review on the history of human functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) development and fields of application. NeuroImage, 63(2), 921–935. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.03.049
Flanagin, A., Frey, T., Christiansen, S. L., AMA Manual of Style Committee. (2021). Updated guidance on the reporting of race and ethnicity in medical and science journals. JAMA, 326(7), 621–627. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2021.13304
Fu, G., Wan, N. J., Baker, J. M., Montgomery, J. W., Evans, J. L., & Gillam, R. B. (2016). A proof of concept study of function-based statistical analysis of fNIRS data: Syntax comprehension in children with specific language impairment compared to typically-developing controls. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 10, 108. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2016.00108
*Funabiki, Y., Murai, T., & Toichi, M. (2012). Cortical activation during attention to sound in autism spectrum disorders. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 33(2), 518–524. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2011.10.016
Gabelica, M., Bojčić, R., & Puljak, L. (2022). Many researchers were not compliant with their published data sharing statement: A mixed-methods study. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 150, 33–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2022.05.019
*Gilmore, N., Yücel, M. A., Li, X., Boas, D. A., & Kiran, S. (2021). Investigating language and domain-general processing in neurotypicals and individuals with aphasia—A functional near-infrared spectroscopy pilot study. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2021.728151
Gilpin, N. W., & Taffe, M. A. (2021). Toward an anti-racist approach to biomedical and neuroscience research. Journal of Neuroscience, 41(42), 8669–8672. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1319-21.2021
Girolamo, T., Castro, N., Hendricks, A. E., Ghali, S., & Eigsti, I. M. (2022a). Implementation of open science practices in communication sciences and disorders research with Black, Indigenous, and People of Color. Journal of Speech, Language & Hearing Research. https://doi.org/10.1044/2022_JSLHR-22-00272
Girolamo, T., Parker, T. C., & Eigsti, I.-M. (2022b). Incorporating DisCrit theory to combat systematic exclusion of BIPOC in clinical neuroscience. Frontiers of Neuroscience. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2022.988092
Goldfarb, M. G., & Brown, D. R. (2022). Diversifying participation: The rarity of reporting racial demographics in neuroimaging research. NeuroImage, 254, 119122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2022.119122
Goon, P., Banfield, C., Bello, O., & Levell, N. (2021). Skin cancers in skin types IV–VI: Does the Fitzpatrick scale give a false sense of security? Skin Health and Disease, 1(3), e40. https://doi.org/10.1002/ski2.40
Gottlieb, E. R., Ziegler, J., Morley, K., Rush, B., & Celi, L. A. (2022). Assessment of racial and ethnic differences in oxygen supplementation among patients in the intensive care unit. JAMA Internal Medicine, 182(8), 849–858. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2022.2587
*Hara, T., Abo, M., Kakita, K., Mori, Y., Yoshida, M., & Sasaki, N. (2017). The effect of selective transcranial magnetic stimulation with functional near-infrared spectroscopy and intensive speech therapy on individuals with post-stroke aphasia. European Neurology, 77(3–4), 186–194. https://doi.org/10.1159/000457901
Heath, S. B. (1983). Ways with words: Language, life and work in communities and classrooms. Cambridge University Press.
Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. (2010). The weirdest people in the world? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33(2–3), 61–83. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X0999152X
Henry, N. R., Hanson, A. C., Schulte, P. J., Warner, N. S., Manento, M. N., Weister, T. J., & Warner, M. A. (2022). Disparities in hypoxemia detection by pulse oximetry across self-identified racial groups and associations with clinical outcomes. Critical Care Medicine, 50(2), 204–211. https://doi.org/10.1097/CCM.0000000000005394
*Hock, C., Villringer, K., Muller-Spahn, F., Wenzel, R., Heekeren, H., Schuh-Hofer, S., Hofmann, M., Minoshima, S., Schwaiger, M., Dirnagl, U., & Villringer, A. (1997). Decrease in parietal cerebral hemoglobin oxygenation during performance of a verbal fluency task in patients with Alzheimer’s disease monitored by means of near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS)-correlation with simultaneous rCBF-PET measurements. Brain Research, 755(2), 293–303. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-8993(97)00122-4
Hollingshead, A. B. (1975). Four factor index of social status. [Unpublished manuscript]. https://sociology.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/yjs_fall_2011.pdf#page=21
*Hosseini, R., Walsh, B., Tian, F., & Wang, S. (2018). An fNIRS-based feature learning and classification framework to distinguish hemodynamic patterns in children who stutter. IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems Rehabilitation Engineering, 26(6), 1254–1263. https://doi.org/10.1109/TNSRE.2018.2829083
*Iwanami, A., Okajima, Y., Ota, H., Tani, M., Yamada, T., Hashimoro, R., Kanai, C., Watanabe, H., Yamasue, H., & Kawakubo, Y. (2011). Task dependent prefrontal dysfunction in persons with Asperger’s disorder investigated with multi-channel near-infrared spectroscopy. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 5(3), 1187–1193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2011.01.005
*Jackson, E. S., Wijeakumar, S., Beal, D. S., Brown, B., Zebrowski, P., & Spencer, J. P. (2019). A fNIRS investigation of speech planning and execution in adults who stutter. Neuroscience, 406, 73–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2019.02.032
JAMA Network Editors. (2020). AMA manual of style: A guide for authors and editors (11th ed.). Oxford University Press.
Jasińska, K. K., Nematova, S., & Yang, X. (2023). Neural activation during phonological processing in primary-school children with limited reading experience: Insights from Rural Côte d’Ivoire. PsyArXiv. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/ats58
Jöbsis, F. F. (1977). Noninvasive, infrared monitoring of cerebral and myocardial oxygen sufficiency and circulatory parameters. Science, 198(4323), 1264–1267. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.929199
Jones, N. L., Breen, N., Das, R., Farhat, T., & Palmer, R. (2019). Cross-cutting themes to advance the science of minority health and health disparities. American Journal of Public Health, 109(1), S21–S24. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2019.304950
*Katzorke, A., Zeller, J. B. M., Muller, L. D., Lauer, M., Polak, T., Deckert, J. U., & Herrmann, M. J. (2018). Decreased hemodynamic response in inferior frontotemporal regions in elderly with mild cognitive impairment. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 274(30), 11–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pscychresns.2018.02.003
*Kawakubo, Y., Kuwabara, H., Watanabe, K. I., Minowa, M., Someya, T., Minowa, I., Kono, T., Nishida, H., Sugiyama, T., Kato, N., & Kasai, K. (2009). Impaired prefrontal hemodynamic maturation in autism and unaffected siblings. PLoS ONE, 4, 6. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0006881
*Keehn, B., Wagner, J. B., Tager-Flusberg, H., & Nelson, C. A. (2013). Functional connectivity in the first year of life in infants at-risk for autism: A preliminary near-infrared spectroscopy study. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 444. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00444
*Kuwabara, H., Kasai, K., Takizawa, R., Kawakubo, Y., Yamasue, H., Rogers, M. A., Ishijima, M., Watanabe, K., & Kato, N. (2006). Decreased prefrontal activation during letter fluency task in adults with pervasive developmental disorders: A near-infrared spectroscopy study. Behavioural Brain Research, 172(2), 272–277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2006.05.020
*Lloyd-Fox, S., Blasi, A., Pasco, G., Gliga, T., Jones, E. J. H., Murphy, D. G. M., Elwell, C. E., Charman, T., & Johnson, M. H. (2018). Cortical responses before 6 months of life associate with later autism. European Journal of Neuroscience, 47(6), 736–749. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejn.13757
Maenner, M. J., Warren, Z., Williams, A. R., Amoakohene, E., Bakian, A. V., Bilder, D. A., Durkin, M. S., Fitzgerald, R. T., Furnier, S. M., Hughes, M. M., Ladd-Acosta, C. M., McArthur, D., Pas, E. T., Salinas, A., Vehorn, A., Williams, S., Esler, A., Grzybowski, A., Hall-Lande, J., Nguyen, R. H. N., Pierce, K., Zahorodny, W., Hudson, A., Hallas, L., Mancilla, K. C., Patrick, M., Shenouda, J., Sidwell, K., DiRienzo, M., Gutierrez, J., Spivey, M. H., Lopez, M., Pettygrove, S., Schwenk, Y. D., Washington, A., & Shaw, K. A. (2023). Prevalence and characteristics of autism spectrum disorder among children aged 8 years - Autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, 11 Sites, United States, 2020. MMWR Surveillance summaries, 72(2), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.ss7202a1
*Marks, R. A., Eggleston, R. L., Sun, X., Yu, C. L., Zhang, K., Nickerson, N., Hu, X. S., & Kovelman, I. (2022). The neurocognitive basis of morphological processing in typical and impaired readers. Annals of Dyslexia, 72(2), 361–383. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-021-00239-9
*Metzger, F. G., Ehlis, A. C., Haeussinger, F. B., Fallgatter, A. J., & Hagen, K. (2015). Effects of cholinesterase inhibitor on brain activation in Alzheimer’s patients measured with functional near-infrared spectroscopy. Psychopharmacology (berl), 232(23), 4383–4391. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-015-4066-z
*Minagawa-Kawai, Y., Naoi, N., Kikuchi, N., Yamamoto, J.-I., Nakamura, K., & Kojima, S. (2009). Cerebral laterality for phonemic and prosodic cue decoding in children with autism. NeuroReport, 20(13), 1219–1224. https://doi.org/10.1097/WNR.0b013e32832fa65f
*Mushtaq, F., Wiggins, I. M., Kitterick, P. T., Anderson, C. A., & Hartley, D. E. H. (2020). The benefit of cross-modal reorganization on speech perception in pediatric cochlear implant recipients revealed using functional near-infrared spectroscopy. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2020.00308
*Naito, M., Michioka, Y., Ozawa, K., Ito, Y., Kiguchi, M., & Kanazawa, T. (2007). A communication means for totally locked-in ALS iatients based on changes in cerebral blood volume measured with near-infrared light. IEICE Transactions on Information and Systems, E90(7), 1028–10377. https://doi.org/10.1093/ietisy/e90-d.7.1028
National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders. (2023a). Developmental language disorder. (NIH Publication No. 22-DC-8194). Retrieved August 2, 2023, from https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/developmental-language-disorder
National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders. (2023b). 2023-2027 NIDCD strategic plan. Retrieved February 7, 2023, from https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/about/strategic-plan/2023-2027-nidcd-strategic-plan
National Institutes of Health. (2021). NIH-wide strategic plan for fiscal years 2021–2025. Retrieved November 3, 2022, from https://www.nih.gov/sites/default/files/about-nih/strategic-plan-fy2021-2025-508.pdf
National Institutes of Health. (2023). Communications and engagement partners. Retrieved May 3, 2023, from https://allofus.nih.gov/funding-and-program-partners/communications-and-engagement-partners
Norbury, C. F., Gooch, D., Wray, C., Baird, G., Charman, T., Simonoff, E., Vamvakas, G., & Pickles, A. (2016). The impact of nonverbal ability on prevalence and clinical presentation of language disorder: Evidence from a population study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 57(11), 1247–1257. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12573
Oetting, J. B., Berry, J. R., Gregory, K. D., Rivière, A. M., & McDonald, J. (2019). Specific language impairment in African American English and Southern White English: Measures of tense and agreement with dialect-informed probes and strategic scoring. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 62(9), 3443–3461. https://doi.org/10.1044/2019_JSLHR-L-19-0089
Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. (2022). Input from The Norwegian Center of Antiracism for the preparation of the report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights pursuant to Human Rights Council resolution 47/21 on the “Promotion and protection of the human rights and fundamental freedoms of Africans and of people of African descent against excessive use of force and other human rights violations by law enforcement officers through transformative change for racial justice and equality” Author. Retrieved November 3, 2022, from https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/racism/wgeapd/cfi-res-47-21/submissions/2022-09-14/Norwegian-Center-of-Antiracism-Submission-NGO-PAD-hrc51-A-HRC-51-53.pdf
Okoji, U. K., Taylor, S. C., & Lipoff, J. B. (2021). Equity in skin typing: Why it is time to replace the Fitzpatrick scale. British Journal of Dermatology, 185(1), 198–199. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjd.19932
*Olds, C., Pollonini, L., Abaya, H., Larky, J., Loy, M., Bortfeld, H., Beauchamp, M. S., & Oghalai, J. S. (2016). Cortical activation patterns correlate with speech understanding after cochlear implantation. Ear and Hearing, 37(3), e160–e172. https://doi.org/10.1097/AUD.0000000000000258
Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., Shamseer, L., Tetzlaff, J. M., Akl, E. A., Brennan, S. E., Chou, R., Glanville, J., Grimshaw, J. M., Hróbjartsson, A., Lalu, M. M., Li, T., Loder, E. W., Mayo-Wilson, E., McDonald, S., … & Moher, D. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. PLoS Medicine, 18(3), e1003583. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003583
Parker, T. C., & Ricard, J. A. (2022). Structural racism in neuroimaging: Perspectives and solutions. The Lancet Psychiatry, 9(5), e22. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(22)00079-7
*Pecukonis, M., Perdue, K. L., Wong, J., Tager-Flusberg, H., & Nelson, C. A. (2021). Exploring the relation between brain response to speech at 6-months and language outcomes at 24-months in infants at high and low risk for autism spectrum disorder: A preliminary functional near-infrared spectroscopy study. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2020.100897
Plaut, V. C. (2010). Diversity science: Why and how difference makes a difference. Psychological Inquiry, 21(2), 77–99. https://doi.org/10.1080/10478401003676501
Pinti, P., Tachtsidis, I., Hamilton, A., Hirsch, J., Aichelburg, C., Gilbert, S., & Burgess, P. W. (2020). The present and future use of functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) for cognitive neuroscience. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1464(1), 5–29. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.13948
Plesa Skwerer, D., Jordan, S. E., Brukilacchio, B. H., & Tager-Flusberg, H. (2016). Comparing methods for assessing receptive language skills in minimally verbal children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Autism, 20(5), 591–604. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361315600146
Roberts, S. O., & Mortenson, E. (2022). Challenging the White = neutral framework in psychology. Perspectives on Psychological Science. https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916221077117
Robinson, G. C., & Norton, P. C. (2019). A decade of disproportionality: A state-level analysis of African American students enrolled in the primary disability category of speech or language impairment. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 50(2), 267–282. https://doi.org/10.1044/2018_LSHSS-17-0149
*Rodriguez Merzagora, A. C., Izzetoglu, M., Onaral, B., & Schultheis, M. T. (2014). Verbal working memory impairments following traumatic brain injury: An fNIRS investigation. Brain Imaging and Behavior, 8, 446–459. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11682-013-9258-8
Russell, G., Mandy, W., Elliott, D., White, R., Pittwood, T., & Ford, T. (2019). Selection bias on intellectual ability in autism research: A cross-sectional review and meta-analysis. Molecular Autism, 10(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13229-019-0260-x
Sabik, N. J., Matsick, J. L., McCormick-Huhn, K., & Cole, E. R. (2021). Bringing an intersectional lens to “open” science: An analysis of representation in the reproducibility project. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 45(4), 475–492. https://doi.org/10.1177/03616843211035678
*Sakatani, K., Xie, Y., Lichty, W., Li, S., & Zuo, H. (1998). Language-activated cerebral blood oxygenation and hemodynamic changes of the left prefrontal cortex in poststroke aphasic patients: A near-infrared spectroscopy study. Stroke, 29(7), 1299–1304. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.STR.29.7.1299
Sasson, N. J., & Bottema-Beutel, K. (2022). Studies of autistic traits in the general population are not studies of autism. Autism, 26(4), 1007–1008. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361321105851
*Sato, Y., Mori, K., Koizumi, T., Minagawa-Kawai, Y., Tanaka, A., Ozawa, E., Wakaba, Y., & Mazuka, R. (2011). Functional lateralization of speech processing in adults and children who stutter. Frontiers in Psychology. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00070
Schaeffer, J., Abd El-Raziq, M., Castroviejo, E., et al. (2023). Language in autism: Domains, profiles and co-occurring conditions. Journal of Neural Transmission, 130, 433–457. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-023-02592-y
Scholkmann, F., Kleiser, S., Metz, A. J., Zimmermann, R., Pavia, J. M., Wolf, U., & Wolf, M. (2014). A review on continuous wave functional near-infrared spectroscopy and imaging instrumentation and methodology. NeuroImage, 85, 6–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.05.004
*Sela, I., Izzetoglu, M., Izzetoglu, K., & Onaral, B. (2014). A functional near-infrared spectroscopy study of lexical decision task supports the dual route model and the phonological deficit theory of dyslexia. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 47(3), 279–288. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219412451998
*Sevy, A. B., Bortfeld, H., Huppert, T. J., Beauchamo, M. S., Tonini, R. E., & Oghalai, J. S. (2010). Neuroimaging with near-infrared spectroscopy demonstrates speech-evoked activity in the auditory cortex of deaf children following cochlear implantation. Hearing Research, 270, 39–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heares.2010.09.010
*Song, R., Zhang, J., Wang, B., Zhang, H., & Wu, H. (2014). A near-infrared brain function study of Chinese dyslexic children. Neurocase, 19(4), 382–389. https://doi.org/10.1080/13554794.2012.690422
The PLOS Biology Editors. (2019). Retraction: Brain-computer interfact-based communication in the completely locked-in state. PLoS Biology, 17(12), e3000607. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3000607
The World Bank. (2022). Countries and economies. Retrieved November 3, 2022, from https://data.worldbank.org/country/
*van de Rijt, L. P. H., van Opstal, A. J., Mylanus, E. A. M., Straatman, L. V., Hu, H. Y., Snik, A. F. M., & van Wanrooij, M. M. (2016). Temporal cortex activation to audiovisual speech in normal-hearing and cochlear implant users measured with functional near-infrared spectroscopy. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2016.00048
Veritas Health Innovation. (2021). Covidence. Retrieved November 3, 2022, from https://www.covidence.org
Viswanathan, M., Ansari, M., Berkman, N., Chang, S., Hartling, L., McPheeters, M., & Treadwell, J. (2012). Assessing the risk of bias of individual studies in systematic reviews of health care interventions: Methods guide for comparative effectiveness reviews Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Retrieved November 3, 2022, from http://www.effectivehealthcare.ahrq.gov/
*Walsh, B., Tian, F., Tourville, J. A., Yücel, M. A., & Bostian, A. J. (2017). Hemodynamics of speech production: An fNIRS investigation of children who stutter. Scientific Reports, 7, 4034. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-04357-6
Walsh, R. J., Krabbendam, L., Dewinter, J., & Begeer, S. (2018). Brief report: Gender identity differences in autistic adults: Associations with perceptual and socio-cognitive profiles. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 48(12), 4070–4078. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-018-3702-y
Warrier, V., Greenberg, D. M., Weir, E., Buckingham, C., Smith, P., Lai, M. C., Allison, C., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2020). Elevated rates of autism, other neurodevelopmental and psychiatric diagnoses, and autistic traits in transgender and gender-diverse individuals. Nature Communications, 11(1), 3959. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-17794-1
Washington, J. A., Branum-Martin, L., Sun, C., & Lee-James, R. (2018). The impact of dialect density on the growth of language and reading in African American children. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 49(2), 232–247. https://doi.org/10.1044/2018_LSHSS-17-0063
Webb, E. K., Etter, J. A., & Kwasa, J. A. (2022). Addressing racial and phenotypic bias in human neuroscience methods. Nature Neuroscience, 25(4), 410–414. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-022-01046-0
Whiting, P. F., Rutjes, A. W., Westwood, M. E., Mallett, S., Deeks, J. J., Reitsma, J. B., Leeflang, M. M., Sterne, J. A., & Bossuyt, P. M. (2011). QUADAS-2: A revised tool for the quality assessment of diagnostic accuracy studies. Annals of Internal Medicine, 155(8), 529–536. https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-155-8-201110180-00009
Wong, A. K. I., Charpignon, M., Kim, H., Josef, C., de Hond, A. A., Fojas, J. J., Tabaie, A., Liu, X., Mireles-Cabodevila, E., Carvalho, L., Kamaleswaran, R., Madushani, R. W. M. A., Adhikari, L., Holder, A. L., Steyerberg, E. W., Buchman, T. G., Lough, M. E., & Celi, L. A. (2021). Analysis of discrepancies between pulse oximetry and arterial oxygen saturation measurements by race and ethnicity and association with organ dysfunction and mortality. JAMA Network Open, 4(11), e2131674–e2131674. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.31674
*Yeung, M. K., Lee, T. L., & Chan, A. S. (2019). Frontal lobe dysfunction underlies the differential word retrieval impairment in adolescents with high-functioning autism. Autism Research, 12, 600–613. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.2082
*Yeung, M. K., Sze, S. L., Woo, J., Kwok, T., Shum, D. H., Yu, R., & Chan, A. S. (2016). Altered frontal lateralization underlies the category fluency deficits in older adults with mild cognitive impairment: A near-infrared spectroscopy study. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 8, 59. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2016.00059
Yücel, M. A. (2023, April 23–27). fNIRS inclusion and equity study. Optica, Coronado, CA.
Yücel, M. A., Lühmann, A. V., Scholkmann, F., Gervain, J., Dan, I., Ayaz, H., Boas, D., Cooper, R. J., Culver, J., & Elwell, C. E. (2021). Best practices for fNIRS publications. Neurophotonics, 8(1), 012101. https://doi.org/10.1117/1.NPh.8.1.012101
Funding
TG, RC, RA, and IME were supported by the National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD) T32DC017703 (Eigsti and E Myers), TG was supported by the American Speech-Language-Hearing Foundation (New Investigators Research Grant), RA was supported by the National Science Foundation BCS-2323360 (Aslin), and IME was supported by the National Institute of Mental Health R01MH112678 (Eigsti). LB was supported by NIDCD P50DC018006 (Tager-Flusberg, Kasari).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
TG: conceptualization, methodology, formal analysis, investigation, data curation, writing—original draft, visualization, project administration, supervision; LB: methodology, formal analysis, investigation, data curation, writing—review editing; RC: formal analysis, data curation, writing—review and editing; RA: formal analysis, writing—review and editing, funding acquisition; IME: formal analysis, writing—review and editing, funding acquisition.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethics Approval
Not applicable.
Competing Interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Girolamo, T., Butler, L., Canale, R. et al. fNIRS Studies of Individuals with Speech and Language Impairment Underreport Sociodemographics: A Systematic Review. Neuropsychol Rev (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-023-09618-y
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-023-09618-y