Abstract
Alcoholism results from an interplay between genetic and environmental factors, and is linked to brain defects and associated cognitive, emotional, and behavioral impairments. A confluence of findings from neuroimaging, physiological, neuropathological, and neuropsychological studies of alcoholics indicate that the frontal lobes, limbic system, and cerebellum are particularly vulnerable to damage and dysfunction. An integrative approach employing a variety of neuroscientific technologies is essential for recognizing the interconnectivity of the different functional systems affected by alcoholism. In that way, relevant experimental techniques can be applied to assist in determining the degree to which abstinence and treatment contribute to the reversal of atrophy and dysfunction.

Similar content being viewed by others
Explore related subjects
Discover the latest articles and news from researchers in related subjects, suggested using machine learning.References
Abel, E. L., Kruger, M. L., & Friedl, J. (1999). How do physicians define “light,” “moderate,” and “heavy” drinking? Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 22(5), 979–984.
Adams, K. M., Gilman, S., Koeppe, R. A., Kluin, K. J., Brunberg, J. A., Dede, D., et al. (1993). Neuropsychological deficits are correlated with frontal hypometabolism in positron emission tomography studies of older alcoholic patients. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 17(2), 205–210.
Agartz, I., Momenam, R., Rawlings, R. R., Kerich, M. J., & Hommer, D. W. (1999). Hippocampal volume in patients with alcohol dependence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56(4), 356–363.
J. P. Aggleton (Ed.) (2000). The amygdala: A functional analysis (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Amaral, D. G., Bauman, M. D., Capitanio, J. P., Lavenex, P., Mason, W. A., Mauldin-Jourdain, M. L., et al. (2003). The amygdala: Is it an essential component of the neural network for social cognition? Neuropsychologia, 41(4), 517–522.
APA (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-IV). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
Baker, K. G., Harding, A. J., Halliday, G. M., Kril, J. J., & Harper, C. G. (1999). Neuronal loss in functional zones of the cerebellum of chronic alcoholics with and without Wernicke’s encephalopathy. Neuroscience, 19(2), 429–438.
Bannerman, D. M., Grubb, M., Deacon, R. M. J., Yee, B. K., Feldon, J., & Rawlins, J. N. P. (2002). Ventral hippocampal lesions affect anxiety but not spatial learning. Behavioural Brain Research, 139, 197–213.
Bannerman, D. M., Rawlins, J. N., McHugh, S. B., Deacon, R. M., Yee, B. K., Bast, T., et al. (2004). Regional dissociations within the hippocampus-memory and anxiety. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 28(3), 273–283.
Bartels, C., Kunert, H. J., Stawicki, S., Kroner-Herwig, B., Ehrenreich, H., & Krampe, H. (2006). Recovery of hippocampus-related functions in chronic alcoholics during monitored long-term abstinence. Alcohol and Alcoholism.
Bartsch, A. J., Homola, G., Biller, A., Smith, S. M., Weijers, H. G., Wiesbeck, G. A., et al. (2007). Manifestations of early brain recovery associated with abstinence from alcoholism. Brain, 130, 36–47.
Begleiter, H., & Porjesz, B. (1999). What is inherited in the predisposition toward alcoholism? A proposed model. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 23(7), 1125–1135.
Beresford, T. P., Arciniegas, D. B., Alfers, J., Clapp, L., Martin, B., Du, Y., et al. (2006). Hippocampus volume loss due to chronic heavy drinking. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 30(11), 1866–1870.
Berglund, M. (1981). Cerebral blood flow in chronic alcoholics. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 5, 295–303.
Bertera, J. H., & Parsons, O. A. (1978). Impaired visual search in alcoholics. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 2(1), 9–14.
Bierut, L. J., Saccone, N. L., Rice, J. P., Goate, A., Foroud, T., Edenberg, H., et al. (2002). Defining alcohol-related phenotypes in humans. The collaborative study on the genetics of alcoholism. Alcohol Research and Health, 26(3), 208–213.
Blair, R. J. R., Morris, J. S., Frith, C. D., Perrettand, D. I., & Dolan, R. J. (1999). Dissociable neural responses to facial expressions of sadness and anger. Brain, 122, 883–893.
Blum, K., Braverman, E. R., Holder, J. M., Lubar, J. F., Monastra, V. J., Miller, D., et al. (2000). Reward deficiency syndrome: A biogenetic model for the diagnosis and treatment of impulsive, addictive, and compulsive behaviors. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 32(Suppl i–iv), 1–112.
Bowden, S. C., & McCarter, R. J. (1993). Spatial memory in alcohol-dependent subjects: Using a push-button maze to test the principle of equiavailability. Brain and Cognition, 22(1), 51–62.
Bowirrat, A., & Oscar-Berman, M. (2005). Relationship between dopaminergic neurotransmission, alcoholism, and Reward Deficiency syndrome. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 132B(1), 29–37.
Breiter, H. C., & Rosen, B. R. (1999). Functional magnetic resonance imaging of brain reward circuitry in the human. In J. F. McGinty (Ed.), Advancing from the ventral striatum to the extended amygdala (Vol. 877, pp. 523–547). New York: New York Academy of Sciences.
Brown, S. A., Gleghorn, A., Schuckit, M. A., Myers, M. G., & Mott, M. A. (1996). Conduct disorder among adolescent alcohol and drug abusers. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 57(3), 314–324.
Bushman, B. J., & Cooper, H. M. (1990). Effects of alcohol on human aggression: An integrative research review. Psychological Bulletin, 107(3), 341–354.
Cermak, L. S., Verfaellie, M., Letourneau, L., Blackford, S., Weiss, S., & Numan, B. (1989). Verbal and nonverbal right hemisphere processing by chronic alcoholics. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 13(5), 611–616.
Chanraud, S., Martelli, C., Delain, F., Kostogianni, N., Douaud, G., Aubin, H. J., et al. (2007). Brain morphometry and cognitive performance in detoxified alcohol-dependents with preserved psychosocial functioning. Neuropsychopharmacology, 32(2), 429–438.
Chen, A. C., Porjesz, B., Rangaswamy, M., Kamarajan, C., Tang, Y., Jones, K. A., et al. (2007). Reduced frontal lobe activity in subjects with high impulsivity and alcoholism. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 31(1), 156–165.
Cipolotti, L., & Bird, C. M. (2006). Amnesia and the hippocampus. Current Opinion in Neurology, 19(6), 593–598.
Clark, C. P., Brown, G. G., Eyler, L. T., Drummond, S. P., Braun, D. R., & Tapert, S. F. (2007a). Decreased perfusion in young alcohol-dependent women as compared with age-matched controls. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 33(1), 13–19.
Clark, U. S., Oscar-Berman, M., Shagrin, B., & Pencina, M. (2007b). Alcoholism and judgments of affective stimuli. Neuropsychology, 21(3), 346–362.
Comings, D. E., Dietz, G., Johnson, J. P., & MacMurray, J. P. (1999). Association of the enkephalinase gene with low amplitude P300 waves. Neuroreport, 10(11), 2283–2285.
Connor, J. P., Young, R. M., Lawford, B. R., Ritchie, T. L., & Noble, E. P. (2002). D(2) dopamine receptor (DRD2) polymorphism is associated with severity of alcohol dependence. European Psychiatry, 17(1), 17–23.
Courville, C. B. (1966). Effects of alcohol on the nervous system of man. Los Angeles: San Lucas Press.
Crews, F. T., Buckley, T., Dodd, P. R., Ende, G., Foley, N., Harper, C., et al. (2005). Alcoholic neurobiology: Changes in dependence and recovery. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 29(8), 1504–1513.
Dao-Castellana, M. H., Samson, Y., Legault, F., Martinot, J. L., Aubin, H. J., Crouzel, C., et al. (1998). Frontal dysfunction in neurologically normal chronic alcoholic subjects: Metabolic and neuropsychological findings. Psychological Medicine, 28(5), 1039–1048.
Davis, M., & Whalen, P. J. (2001). The amygdala: Vigilance and emotion. Molecular Psychiatry, 6, 13–34.
Dawson, D. A., Grant, B. F., Stinson, F. S., & Zhou, Y. (2005). Effectiveness of the derived Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT-C) in screening for alcohol use disorders and risk drinking in the US general population. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 29(5), 844–854.
De Rosa, E., Desmond, J. E., Anderson, A. K., Pfefferbaum, A., & Sullivan, E. V. (2004). The human basal forebrain integrates the old and the new. Neuron, 41(5), 825–837.
de Wit, H., Metz, J., Wagner, N., & Cooper, M. (1990). Behavioral and subjective effects of ethanol: Relationship to cerebral metabolism using PET. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 14(3), 482–489.
Deckel, A. W., Hesselbrock, V., & Bauer, L. (1996). Antisocial personality disorder, childhood delinquency, and frontal brain functioning: EEG and neuropsychological findings. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 52(6), 639–650.
Delaveau, P., Salgado-Pineda, P., Wicker, B., Micallef-Roll, J., & Blin, O. (2005). Effect of levodopa on healthy volunteers’ facial emotion perception: An FMRI study. Clinical Neuropharmacology, 28(6), 255–261.
Desmond, J. E., Chen, S. H., DeRosa, E., Pryor, M. R., Pfefferbaum, A., & Sullivan, E. V. (2003). Increased frontocerebellar activation in alcoholics during verbal working memory: An fMRI study. Neuroimage, 19(4), 1510–1520.
Di Sclafani, V., Ezekiel, F., Meyerhoff, D. J., MacKay, S., Dillon, W. P., Weiner, M. W., et al. (1995). Brain atrophy and cognitive function in older abstinent alcoholic men. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 19(5), 1121–1126.
Di Sclafani, V., Finn, P., & Fein, G. (2007). Psychiatric comorbidity in long-term abstinent alcoholic individuals. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 31(5), 795–803.
Dick, D. M., Edenberg, H. J., Xuei, X., Goate, A., Kuperman, S., Schuckit, M., et al. (2004). Association of GABRG3 with alcohol dependence. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 28(1), 4–9.
Dick, D. M., & Foroud, T. (2003). Candidate genes for alcohol dependence: A review of genetic evidence from human studies. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 27(5), 868–879.
Dickson, P. A., James, M. R., Heath, A. C., Montgomery, G. W., Martin, N. G., Whitfield, J. B., et al. (2006). Effects of variation at the ALDH2 locus on alcohol metabolism, sensitivity, consumption, and dependence in Europeans. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 30(7), 1093–1100.
Dirksen, C. L., Howard, J. A., Cronin-Golomb, A., & Oscar-Berman, M. (2006). Patterns of prefrontal dysfunction in alcoholics with or without Korsakoff’s syndrome, patients with Parkinson’s disease, and patients with rupture and repair of the anterior communicating artery. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 23(3), 327–339.
Doggrell, S. A. (2006). Which treatment for alcohol dependence: Naltrexone, acamprosate and/or behavioural intervention? Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy, 7(15), 2169–2173.
Dougherty, D. M., Marsh, D. M., Moeller, F. G., Chokshi, R. V., & Rosen, V. C. (2000). Effects of moderate and high doses of alcohol on attention, impulsivity, discriminability, and response bias in immediate and delayed memory task performance. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 24(11), 1702–1711.
Dougherty, D. M., Moeller, F. G., Steinberg, J. L., Marsh, D. M., Hines, S. E., & Bjork, J. M. (1999). Alcohol increases commission error rates for a continuous performance test. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 23(8), 1342–1351.
Drake, A. I., Hannay, H. J., & Gam, J. (1990). Effects of chronic alcoholism on hemispheric functioning: An examination of gender differences for cognitive and dichotic listening tasks. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 12(5), 781–797.
Dufour, M., & Fuller, R. K. (1995). Alcohol in the elderly. Annual Review of Medicine, 46, 123–132.
Durazzo, T. C., Rothlind, J. C., Gazdzinski, S., Banys, P., & Meyerhoff, D. J. (2006). A comparison of neurocognitive function in nonsmoking and chronically smoking short-term abstinent alcoholics. Alcoholism, 39(1), 1–11.
Eckardt, M. J., File, S. E., Gessa, G. L., Grant, K. A., Guerri, C., Foffman, P. L., et al. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 22, 998–1040.
Edenberg, H. J., & Foroud, T. (2006). The genetics of alcoholism: Identifying specific genes through family studies. Addiction Biology, 11(3–4), 386–396.
Ellis, R. J., & Oscar-Berman, M. (1989). Alcoholism, aging, and functional cerebral asymmetries. Psychological Bulletin, 106, 128–147.
Ende, G., Welzel, H., Walter, S., Weber-Fahr, W., Diehl, A., Hermann, D., et al. (2005). Monitoring the effects of chronic alcohol consumption and abstinence on brain metabolism: A longitudinal proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Biological Psychiatry, 58(12), 974–980.
Enoch, M. A. (2003). Pharmacogenomics of alcohol response and addiction. American Journal of Pharmacogenomics, 3(4), 217–232.
Erbas, B., Bekdik, C., Erbengi, G., Enunlu, T., Aytac, S., Kumbasar, H., et al. (1992). Regional cerebral blood flow changes in chronic alcoholism using Tc-99m HMPAO SPECT. Comparison with CT parameters. Clinical Nuclear Medicine, 17(2), 123–127.
Errico, A. L., King, A. C., Lovallo, W. R., & Parsons, O. A. (2002). Cortisol dysregulation and cognitive impairment in abstinent male alcoholics. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 26(8), 1198–1204.
Everitt, B. J., Cardinal, R. N., Parkinson, J. A., & Robbins, T. W. (2003). Appetitive behavior: Impact of amygdala-dependent mechanisms of emotional learning. Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 985, 233–250.
Evert, D. L., & Oscar-Berman, M. (2001). Selective attentional processing and the right hemisphere: Effects of aging and alcoholism. Neuropsychology, 15(4), 452–461.
Fein, G., & Chang, M. (2006). Visual P300s in long-term abstinent chronic alcoholics. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 30(12), 2000–2007.
Fein, G., Di Sclafani, V., Finn, P., & Scheiner, D. L. (2007). Sub-diagnostic psychiatric comorbidity in alcoholics. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 87(2–3), 139–145.
Fein, G., Klein, L., & Finn, P. (2004). Impairment on a simulated gambling task in long-term abstinent alcoholics. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 28(10), 1487–1491.
Fein, G., McGillivray, S., & Finn, P. (2006). Normal performance on a simulated gambling task in treatment-naive alcohol-dependent individuals. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 30(6), 959–966.
Fein, G., Torres, J., Price, L. J., & Di Sclafani, V. (2006). Cognitive performance in long-term abstinent alcoholic individuals. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 30(9), 1538–1544.
Fillmore, M. T., & Weafer, J. (2004). Alcohol impairment of behavior in men and women. Addiction, 99(10), 1237–1246.
Finn, P. R. (2002). Motivation, working memory, and decision making: A cognitive-motivational theory of personality vulnerability to alcoholism. Cognitive Neuroscience Reviews 1(3), 183–205.
Finn, P. R., Sharkansky, E. J., Brandt, K. M., & Turcotte, N. (2000). The effects of familial risk, personality, and expectancies on alcohol use and abuse. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109(1), 122–133.
Foisy, M. L., Philippot, P., Verbanck, P., Pelc, I., van der Straten, G., & Kornreich, C. (2005). Emotional facial expression decoding impairment in persons dependent on multiple substances: Impact of a history of alcohol dependence. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 66(5), 673–681.
Fox, H. C., Bergquist, K. L., Hong, K. I., & Sinha, R. (2007). Stress-induced and alcohol cue-induced craving in recently abstinent alcohol-dependent individuals. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 31(3), 395–403.
Fuster, J. M. (1997). The prefrontal cortex (3rd ed.). New York: Lippincott-Raven.
Fuster, J. M. (2006). The cognit: A network model of cortical representation. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 60(2), 125–132.
Gansler, D. A., Harris, G. J., Oscar-Berman, M., Streeter, C., Lewis, R. F., Ahmed, I., et al. (2000). Hypoperfusion of inferior frontal brain regions in abstinent alcoholics: A pilot SPECT study. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 61(1), 32–37.
Gazdzinski, S., Durazzo, T. C., Studholme, C., Song, E., Banys, P., & Meyerhoff, D. J. (2005). Quantitative brain MRI in alcohol dependence: Preliminary evidence for effects of concurrent chronic cigarette smoking on regional brain volumes. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 29(8), 1484–1495.
Gebhardt, C. A., Naeser, M. A., & Butters, N. (1984). Computerized measures of CT scans of alcoholics: Thalamic region related to memory. Alcohol, 1(2), 133–140.
Giancola, P. R. (2004). Executive functioning and alcohol-related aggression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 113(4), 541–555.
Gianoulakis, C. (1998). Alcohol-seeking behavior: The roles of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis and the endogenous opioid system. Alcohol Health and Research World, 22(3), 202–210.
Gilman, S., Adams, K. M., Johnsongreene, D., Koeppe, R. A., Junck, L., Kluin, K. J., et al. (1996). Effects of disulfiram on positron emission tomography and neuropsychological studies in severe chronic alcoholism. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 20(8), 1456–1461.
Gilman, S., Adams, K., Koeppe, R. A., Berent, S., Kluin, K. J., Modell, J. G., et al. (1990). Cerebellar and frontal hypometabolism in alcoholic cerebellar degeneration studied with positron emission tomography. Annals of Neurology, 28(6), 775–785.
Goldberg, E. (2001). The executive brain: Frontal lobes and the civilized mind. New York: Oxford University Press.
Golden, C. J., Graber, B., Blose, I., Berg, R., Coffman, J., & Bloch, S. (1981). Difference in brain densities between chronic alcoholic and normal control patients. Science, 211(4481), 508–510.
Goldman, D., Dean, M., Brown, G. L., Bolos, A. M., Tokola, R., Virkkunen, M., et al. (1992). D2 dopamine receptor genotype and cerebrospinal fluid homovanillic acid, 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid and 3-methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol in alcoholics in Finland and the United States. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 86(5), 351–357.
Grant, S. A., Millar, K., & Kenny, G. N. (2000). Blood alcohol concentration and psychomotor effects. British Journal of Anaesthesiology, 85(3), 401–406.
Grant, B. F., Stinson, F. S., Dawson, D. A., Chou, S. P., Dufour, M. C., Compton, W., et al. (2004). Prevalence and co-occurrence of substance use disorders and independent mood and anxiety disorders. Results from the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61, 807–816.
Gray, J. A., & McNaughton, N. (2000). The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system (2nd ed.). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Grillon, C., Sinha, R., & O’Malley, S. S. (1995). Effects of ethanol on the processing of low probability stimuli: An ERP study. Psychopharmacology (Berlin), 119(4), 455–465.
Harding, A. J., Wong, A., Svoboda, M., Kril, J. J., & Halliday, G. M. (1997). Chronic alcohol consumption does not cause hippocampal neuron loss in humans. Hippocampus, 7(10), 78–87.
Harper, C. G. (1998). The neuropathology of alcohol-specific brain damage, or does alcohol damage the brain? Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology, 57(2), 101–110.
Harper, C. G., Kril, J. J., & Holloway, R. L. (1985). Brain shrinkage in chronic alcoholics: A pathological study. British Medical Journal, 290(6467), 501–504.
Harper, C. G., & Matsumoto, I. (2005). Ethanol and brain damage. Current Opinion in Pharmacology, 5, 73–78.
Harris, G. J., Jaffin, S. K., Hodge, S. M., Kennedy, D., Caviness, V. S., Marinkovic, K., et al. (2007). Right frontal white matter and cingulum diffusion tensor imaging deficits in alcoholism. Biological Psychiatry (submitted).
Harris, G. J., Oscar-Berman, M., Gansler, D. A., Streeter, C., Lewis, R. F., Ahmed, I., et al. (1999). Hypoperfusion of cerebellum and aging effects on cerebral cortex blood flow in abstinent alcoholics: A SPECT study. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 23(7), 1219–1227.
Heinz, A., Mann, K., Weinberger, D. R., & Goldman, D. (2001). Serotonergic dysfunction, negative mood states, and response to alcohol. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 25(4), 487–495.
Helzer, J. E., Bucholz, K. K., Bierut, L. J., Regier, D. A., Schuckit, M. A., & Guth, S. E. (2006). Should DSM-V include dimensional diagnostic criteria for alcohol use disorders? Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 30(2), 303–310.
Herrera, D. G., Yague, A. G., Johnsen-Soriano, S., Bosch-Morell, F., Collado-Morente, L., Muriach, M., et al. (2003). Selective impairment of hippocampal neurogenesis by chronic alcoholism: Protective effects of an antioxidant. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 100(13), 7919–7924.
Hesselbrock, V. M., Hesselbrock, M. N., & Stabenau, J. R. (1985). Alcoholism in men patients subtyped by family history and antisocial personality. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 46(1), 59–64.
Hill, S. Y., & Steinhauer, S. R. (1993). Event-related potentials in women at risk for alcoholism. Alcohol, 10, 349–354.
Hoaken, P. N., & Stewart, S. H. (2003). Drugs of abuse and the elicitation of human aggressive behavior. Addictive Behaviors, 28(9), 1533–1554.
Hommer, D. W., Momenan, R., Kaiser, E., & Rawlings, R. R. (2001). Evidence for a gender-related effect of alcoholism on brain volumes. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158(2), 198–204.
Hommer, D. W., Momenan, R., Rawlings, R. R., Ragan, P., Williams, W., Rio, D., et al. (1996). Decreased corpus callosum size among alcoholic women. Archives of Neurology, 53(4), 359–363.
Howard, J. A., Oscar-Berman, M., Marinkovic, K., O’Reilly, C., & Harris, G. J. (2003). Affective and cognitive changes in alcoholism: Recognition of faces and words. Paper presented at the Society for Neuroscience Annual Meeting, Washington, DC.
Jääskeläinen, I. P., Schroger, E., & Näätänen, R. (1999). Electrophysiological indices of acute effects of ethanol on involuntary attention shifting. Psychopharmacology (Berlin), 141(1), 16–21.
Jentsch, J. D., & Taylor, J. R. (1999). Impulsivity resulting from frontostriatal dysfunction in drug abuse: Implications for the control of behavior by reward-related stimuli. Psychopharmacology (Berlin), 146(4), 373–390.
Johnson, C., Drgon, T., Liu, Q. R., Walther, D., Edenberg, H., Rice, J., et al. (2006). Pooled association genome scanning for alcohol dependence using 104,268 SNPs: Validation and use to identify alcoholism vulnerability loci in unrelated individuals from the collaborative study on the genetics of alcoholism. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 141(8), 844–853.
Johnson-Greene, D., Adams, K. M., & Gilman, S. (1997). Effects of abstinence and relapse upon neuropsychological function and cerebral glucose metabolism in severe chronic alcoholism. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 19(3), 378–385.
Jones, B., & Parsons, O. A. (1971). Impaired abstracting ability in chronic alcoholics. Archives of General Psychiatry, 24(1), 71–75.
Kalant, H., Gomberg, E., Hegedius, A., & Zucker, R. (1998). Pharmacological interactions of aging and alcohol. In E. Gomberg, A. Hegedius, & R. Zucker (Eds.), Alcohol Problems and Aging (vol. NIAAA Research Monograph no. 33 (Publication no. 98-4163), pp. 99–116). Bethesda: National Institutes of Health.
Kendler, K. S., Prescott, C. A., Myers, J., & Neale, M. C. (2003). The structure of genetic and environmental risk factors for common psychiatric and substance use disorders in men and women. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60(9), 929–937.
Kessler, R. C., Chiu, W. T., Demler, O., Walters, E. E., & Merikangas, K. R. (2005). Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 617–627.
Kjelstrup, K. G., Tuvnes, F. A., Steffenach, H. A., Murison, R., Moser, E. I., & Moser, M. B. (2002). Reduced fear expression after lesions of the ventral hippocampus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 99, 10825–10830.
Klatsky, A. L. (2007). Alcohol, cardiovascular diseases and diabetes mellitus. Pharmacological Research, 55.
Koelega, H. S. (1995). Alcohol and vigilance performance: A review. Psychopharmacology (Berlin), 118(3), 233–249.
Koob, G. F. (2003). Alcoholism: Allostasis and beyond. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 27(2), 232–243.
Kornreich, C., Philippot, P., Foisy, M. L., Blairy, S., Raynaud, E., Dan, B., et al. (2002). Impaired emotional facial expression recognition is associated with interpersonal problems in alcoholism. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 37(4), 394–400.
Kostandov, E. A., Arsumanov, Y. L., Genkina, O. A., Restchikova, T. N., & Shostakovich, G. S. (1982). The effects of alcohol on hemispheric functional asymmetry. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 43(5), 411–426.
Kranzler, H. R., & Van Kirk, J. (2001). Efficacy of naltrexone and acamprosate for alcoholism treatment: A meta-analysis. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 25(9), 1335–1341.
Kroft, C. L., Gescuk, B., Woods, B. T., Mello, N. K., Weiss, R. D., & Mendelson, J. H. (1991). Brain ventricular size in female alcoholics: An MRI study. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 8(1), 31–34.
Kurth, C., Wegerer, V., Reulbach, U., Lewczuk, P., Kornhuber, J., Steinhoff, B. J., et al. (2004). Analysis of hippocampal atrophy in alcoholic patients by a Kohonen feature map. Neuroreport, 15(2), 367–371.
Laakso, M. P., Gunning-Dixon, F., Vaurio, O., Repo-Tiihonen, E., Soininen, H., & Tiihonen, J. (2002). Prefrontal volumes in habitually violent subjects with antisocial personality disorder and type 2 alcoholism. Psychiatry Research, 114(2), 95–102.
Laakso, M. P., Vaurio, O., Savolainen, L., Repo, E., Soininen, H., Aronen, H. J., et al. (2000). A volumetric MRI study of the hippocampus in type 1 and 2 alcoholism. Behavioral Brain Research, 109(2), 177–186.
LaBar, K. S., & Cabeza, R. (2006). Cognitive neuroscience of emotional memory. Nature Reviews: Neuroscience, 7(1), 54–64.
Lancaster (1995). Gender differences in animal studies. Implications for the study of human alcoholism. Recent Developments in Alcoholism, 12, 209–215.
LeDoux, J. E. (2003). The emotional brain, fear, and the amygdala. Cell and Molecular Neurobiology, 23(4–5), 727–738.
Lee, K., Moller, L., Hardt, F., Haubek, A., & Jensen, E. (1979). Alcohol-induced brain damage and liver damage in young males. Lancet, 2(8146), 759–761.
D. G. Lichter & J. L. Cummings (Eds.) (2001). Frontal-subcortical circuits in psychiatric and neurological disorders. New York: The Guilford Press.
Lovallo, W. R. (2006). The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenocortical axis in addiction. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 59(3), 193–194.
Lyvers, M. (2000). "Loss of control" in alcoholism and drug addiction: A neuroscientific interpretation. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 8(2), 225–249.
Makris, N., Oscar-Berman, M., Jaffin, S. K., Hodge, S. M., Kennedy, D., Caviness, V. S., et al. (2007). Decreased volume of the brain reward system in alcoholism. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research (submitted).
Mann, K. (2004). Pharmacotherapy of alcohol dependence: A review of the clinical data. CNS Drugs, 18(8), 485–504.
Mann, K., Batra, A., Gunthner, A., & Schroth, G. (1992). Do women develop alcoholic brain damage more readily than men? Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 16(6), 1052–1056.
Marczinski, C. A., Abroms, B. D., Van Selst, M., & Fillmore, M. T. (2005). Alcohol-induced impairment of behavioral control: Differential effects on engaging vs. disengaging responses. Psychopharmacology (Berlin), 182(3), 452–459.
Marczinski, C. A., & Fillmore, M. T. (2003). Preresponse cues reduce the impairing effects of alcohol on the execution and suppression of responses. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 11(1), 110–117.
Marinkovic, K., Halgren, E., Klopp, J., & Maltzman, I. (2000). Alcohol effects on movement-related potentials: A measure of impulsivity? Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 61(1), 24–31.
Marinkovic, K., Halgren, E., & Maltzman, I. (2001). Arousal-related P3a to novel auditory stimuli is abolished by moderately low alcohol dose. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 36(6), 529–539.
Marinkovic, K., Halgren, E., & Maltzman, I. (2004). Effects of alcohol on verbal processing: An ERP study. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 28(3), 415–423.
Marinkovic, K., Oscar-Berman, M., Urban, T., O’Reilly, C. E., Howard, J. A., Sawyer, K., et al. (2007). Decreased limbic activation to emotional paces in chronic alcoholics. (submitted for publication).
Martin, P. R., Nimmerrichter, A., Riddle, W. R., Welch, L. W., & Willcott, M. R. (1995). Brain proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy studies in recently abstinent alcoholics. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 19(4), 1078–1082.
Mazas, C. A., Finn, P. R., & Steinmetz, J. E. (2000). Decision-making biases, antisocial personality, and early-onset alcoholism. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 24(7), 1036–1040.
McHugh, S. B., Deacon, R. M., Rawlins, J. N., & Bannerman, D. M. (2004). Amygdala and ventral hippocampus contribute differentially to mechanisms of fear and anxiety. Behavioral Neuroscience, 118(1), 63–78.
Melgaard, B., Henriksen, L., Ahlgren, P., Danielsen, U. T., Sorensen, H., & Paulson, O. B. (1990). Regional cerebral blood flow in chronic alcoholics measured by single photon emission computerized tomography. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 82(2), 87–93.
Monnot, M., Lovallo, W. R., Nixon, S. J., & Ross, E. (2002). Neurological basis of deficits in affective prosody comprehension among alcoholics and fetal alcohol-exposed adults. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 14(3), 321–328.
Moselhy, H. F., Georgiou, G., & Kahn, A. (2001). Frontal lobe changes in alcoholism: A review of the literature. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 36(5), 357–368.
Mulvihill, L. E., Skilling, T. A., & Vogel-Sprott, M. (1997). Alcohol and the ability to inhibit behavior in men and women. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 58(6), 600–605.
Mungas, D., Ehlers, C. L., & Wall, T. L. (1994). Effects of acute alcohol administration on verbal and spatial learning. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 29(2), 163–169.
Murdoch, D., Phil, R. O., & Ross, D. (1990). Alcohol and crimes of violence: present issues. International Journal of Addictions, 25(9), 1065–1081.
Nagel, B. J., Schweinsburg, A. D., Phan, V., & Tapert, S. F. (2005). Hippocampal volume among adolescents with alcohol use disorders without psychiatric comorbidity. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 139(3), 181–190.
Nagoshi, C. T., & Wilson, J. R. (1989). Long-term repeatability of human alcohol metabolism, sensitivity and acute tolerance. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 50(2), 162–169.
NIAAA (1997). Ninth special report to the US Congress on alcohol and health. Bethesda, MD: NIAAA.
Nicolás, J. M., Catafau, A. M., Estruch, R., Lomeña, F. J., Salamero, M., Herranz, R., et al. (1993). Regional cerebral blood flow-SPECT in chronic alcoholism: Relation to neuropsychological testing. Journal of Nuclear Medicine, 34(9), 1452–1459.
Nixon, K. (2006). Alcohol and adult neurogenesis: Roles in neurodegeneration and recovery in chronic alcoholism. Hippocampus, 16(3), 287–295.
Noel, X., Van der Linden, M., d’Acremont, M., Bechara, A., Dan, B., Hanak, C., et al. (2007). Alcohol cues increase cognitive impulsivity in individuals with alcoholism. Psychopharmacology (Berlin).
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Hilt, L. (2006). Possible contributors to the gender differences in alcohol use and problems. Journal of General Psychology, 133(4), 357–374.
O’Neill, J., Cardenas, V. A., & Meyerhoff, D. J. (2001). Effects of abstinence on the brain: Quantitative magnetic resonance imaging and magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging in chronic alcohol abuse. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 25(11), 1673–1682.
Oscar-Berman, M., & Bowirrat, A. (2005). Genetic influences in emotional dysfunction and alcoholism-related brain damage. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 1(3), 211–229.
Oscar-Berman, M., & Evert, D. L. (1997). Alcoholic Korsakoff’s syndrome. In P. D. Nussbaum (Ed.), Handbook of neuropsychology and aging (pp. 201–215). New York: Plenum.
Oscar-Berman, M., Hancock, M., Mildworf, B., Hutner, N., & Weber, D. A. (1990). Emotional perception and memory in alcoholism and aging. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 14(3), 383–393.
Oscar-Berman, M., & Hutner, N. (1993). Frontal lobe changes after chronic alcohol ingestion. In W. A. Hunt & S. J. Nixon (Eds.), Alcohol-induced brain damage (vol. Monograph No. 22, pp. 121–156). Rockville, MD: NIAAA.
Oscar-Berman, M., Kirkley, S. M., Gansler, D. A., & Couture, A. (2004). Comparisons of Korsakoff and non-Korsakoff alcoholics on neuropsychological tests of prefrontal brain functioning. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 28(4), 667–675.
Oscar-Berman, M., & Marinkovic, K. (2003). Alcoholism and the brain: An overview. Alcohol Research and Health, 27(2), 125–133.
Oscar-Berman, M., & Schendan, H. E. (2000). Asymmetries of brain function in alcoholism: Relationship to aging. In L. Obler & L. T. Connor (Eds.), Neurobehavior of language and cognition: Studies of normal aging and brain damage (pp. 213–240). New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Oscar-Berman, M., Shagrin, B., Evert, D. L., & Epstein, C. (1997). Impairments of brain and behavior. The neurological effects of alcohol. Alcohol Health and Research World, 21(1), 65–75.
Parsons, O. A. (1987). Neuropsychological consequences of alcohol abuse: Many questions—some answers. In O. Parsons, N. Butters, & P. Nathan (Eds.), Neuropsychology of alcoholism (pp. 153–175). New York: Guilford Press.
Parsons, O. A. (1994). Neuropsychological measures and event-related potentials in alcoholics: Interrelationships, long-term reliabilities, and prediction of resumption of drinking. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 50(1), 37–46.
Parsons, O. A. (1996). Alcohol abuse and alcoholism. In R. L. Adams, O. A. Parsons, J. L. Culbertson, & S. J. Nixon (Eds.), Neuropsychology for clinical practice (pp. 175–201). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Press.
Parsons, O. A., & Leber, W. R. (1981). The relationship between cognitive dysfunction and brain damage in alcoholics: Causal, interactive, or epiphenomenal? Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 5(2), 326–343.
Pentney, R. J., Mullan, B. A., Felong, A. M., & Dlugos, C. A. (2002). The total numbers of cerebellar granule neurons in young and aged Fischer 344 and Wistar-Kyoto rats do not change as a result of lengthy ethanol treatment. Cerebellum, 1(1), 79–89.
Peterson, J. B., Rothfleisch, J., Zelazo, P. D., & Pihl, R. O. (1990). Acute alcohol intoxication and cognitive functioning. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 51(2), 114–122.
Petrakis, I. L., Gonzalez, G., Rosenheck, R., & Krystal, J. H. (2002). Comorbidity of alcoholism and psychiatric disorders. Alcohol Research and Health, 26(1), 81–89.
Pfefferbaum, A., Adalsteinsson, E., & Sullivan, E. V. (2005). Frontal circuitry degradation marks healthy adult aging: Evidence from diffusion tensor imaging. Neuroimage, 26(3), 891–899.
Pfefferbaum, A., Adalsteinsson, E., Sullivan, E. V. (2006). Dysmorphology and microstructural degradation of the corpus callosum: Interaction of age and alcoholism. Neurobiology of Aging, 27(7), 994–1009.
Pfefferbaum, A., Desmond, J. E., Galloway, C., Menon, V., Glover, G. H., & Sullivan, E. V. (2001). Reorganization of frontal systems used by alcoholics for spatial working memory: An fMRI study. NeuroImage, 14(1 Pt 1), 7–20.
Pfefferbaum, A., Lim, K. O., Desmond, J. E., & Sullivan, E. V. (1996). Thinning of the corpus callosum in older alcoholic men: A magnetic resonance imaging study. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 20(4), 752–757.
Pfefferbaum, A., Rosenbloom, M., Deshmukh, A., & Sullivan, E. V. (2001). Sex differences in the effects of alcohol on brain structure. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158(2), 188–197.
Pfefferbaum, A., Rosenbloom, M., Serventi, K. L., & Sullivan, E. V. (2002). Corpus callosum, pons, and cortical white matter in alcoholic women. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 26(3), 400–406.
Pfefferbaum, A., & Sullivan, E. V. (2002). Microstructural but not macrostructural disruption of white matter in women with chronic alcoholism. NeuroImage, 15(3), 708–718.
Pfefferbaum, A., & Sullivan, E. V. (2005). Disruption of brain white matter microstructure by excessive intracellular and extracellular fluid in alcoholism: Evidence from diffusion tensor imaging. Neuropsychopharmacology, 30(2), 423–432.
Pfefferbaum, A., Sullivan, E. V., Mathalon, D. H., & Lim, K. O. (1997). Frontal lobe volume loss observed with magnetic resonance imaging in older chronic alcoholics. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 21(3), 521–529.
Pfefferbaum, A., Sullivan, E. V., Mathalon, D. H., Shear, P. K., Rosenbloom, M. J., & Lim, K. O. (1995). Longitudinal changes in magnetic resonance imaging brain volumes in abstinent and relapsed alcoholics. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 19(5), 1177–1191.
Pfefferbaum, A., Sullivan, E. V., Rosenbloom, M. J., Mathalon, D. H., & Lim, K. O. (1998). A controlled study of cortical gray matter and ventricular changes in alcoholic men over a 5-year interval. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55(10), 905–912.
Phelps, E. A. (2004). Human emotion and memory: Interactions of the amygdala and hippocampal complex. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 14(2), 198–202.
Philippot, P., Kornreich, C., Blairy, S., Baert, I., Den Dulk, A., Le Bon, O., et. al. (1999). Alcoholics’ deficits in the decoding of emotional facial expression. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 23(6), 1031–1038.
Phillips, S. C., Harper, C. G., & Kril, J. (1987). A quantitative histological study of the cerebellar vermis in alcoholic patients. Brain, 110, 301–314.
Piazza, P. V., Rouge-Pont, F., Deroche, V., Maccari, S., Simon, H., & Le Moal, M. (1996). Glucocorticoids have state-dependent stimulant effects on the mesencephalic dopaminergic transmission. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 93(16), 8716–8720.
Pihl, R. O., Peterson, J. B., & Lau, M. A. (1993). A biosocial model of the alcohol-aggression relationship. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 11 Suppl, 128–139.
Pitkänen, A., Pikkarainen, M., Nurminen, N., & Ylinen, A. (2000). Reciprocal connections between the amygdala and the hippocampus formation, perirhinal cortex, and postrhinal cortex in rat. A review. In H. E. Scharfman, R. Schwarcz, & M. P. Witter (Eds.), The parahippocampal region: Implications for neurological and psychiatric diseases (vol. 911, pp. 369–391). New York: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.
Pohorecky, L. A., & Brick, J. (1977). Activity of neurons in the locus coeruleus of the rat: Inhibition by ethanol. Brain Research, 131(1), 174–179.
Porjesz, B., & Begleiter, H. (1982). Evoked brain potential deficits in alcoholism and aging. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 6(1), 53–63.
Porjesz, B., & Begleiter, H. (1985). Human brain electrophysiology and alcoholism. In R. E. Tarter & D. H. Van Thiel (Eds.), Alcohol and the brain (pp. 139–182). New York: Plenum Press.
Raine, A., Lencz, T., Bihrle, S., LaCasse, L., & Colletti, P. (2000). Reduced prefrontal gray matter volume and reduced autonomic activity in antisocial personality disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57(2), 119–127; discussion 128–119.
Rangaswamy, M., Porjesz, B., Ardekani, B. A., Choi, S. J., Tanabe, J. L., Lim, K. O., et al. (2004). A functional MRI study of visual oddball: Evidence for frontoparietal dysfunction in subjects at risk for alcoholism. Neuroimage, 21(1), 329–339.
Ratti, M. T., Bo, P., Giardini, A., & Soragna, D. (2002). Chronic alcoholism and the frontal lobe: Which executive functions are impaired? Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 105(4), 276–281.
Reed, T. E. (1985). The myth of "the average alcohol response." Alcohol, 2(3), 515–519.
Regier, D. A., Farmer, M. E., Rae, D. S., Locke, B. Z., Keith, S. J., Judd, L. L., et al. (1990). Comorbidity of mental disorders with alcohol and other drug abuse. Results from the Epidemiologic Catchment Area (ECA) study. Journal of the American Medical Association, 264(19), 2511–2518.
Richardson, M. P., Strange, B. A., & Dolan, R. J. (2004). Encoding of emotional memories depends on amygdala and hippocampus and their interactions. Nature Neuroscience, 7(3), 278–285.
Ridderinkhof, K. R., de Vlugt, Y., Bramlage, A., Spaan, M., Elton, M., Snel, J., et al. (2002). Alcohol consumption impairs detection of performance errors in mediofrontal cortex. Science, 298(5601), 2209–2211.
Rolls, E. T. (2000). Precis of the brain and emotion. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 23, 177–234.
Rosenbloom, M., Sullivan, E. V., & Pfefferbaum, A. (2003). Using magnetic resonance imaging and diffusion tensor imaging to assess brain damage in alcoholics. Alcohol Research and Health, 27(2), 146–152.
Rourke, S. B., & Løberg, T. (1996). The neurobehavioral correlates of alcoholism. In I. Grant & S. J. Nixon (Eds.), Neuropsychological assessment of neuropsychiatric disorders (2nd ed., pp. 423–485). New York: Oxford University Press.
Sah, P., Faber, E. S., Lopez De Armentia, M., & Power, J. (2003). The amygdaloid complex: Anatomy and physiology. Physiological Review, 83, 803–834.
Samson, Y., Baron, J. C., Feline, A., Bories, J., & Crouzel, C. (1986). Local cerebral glucose utilisation in chronic alcoholics: A positron tomographic study. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 49(10), 1165–1170.
Schmahmann, J. D. (Ed.) (1997). The cerebellum and cognition (vol. 41), International review of neurobiology, edited by Bradley, R. J., Harris, R. A., & Jenner, P. San Diego: Academic Press.
Schmahmann, J. D. (2000). The role of the cerebellum in affect and psychosis. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 13, 189–214.
Schuckit, M. A., Smith, T. L., & Kalmijn, J. (2004). The search for genes contributing to the low level of response to alcohol: Patterns of findings across studies. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 28, 1449–1458.
Schulte, T., Sullivan, E. V., Muller-Oehring, E. M., Adalsteinsson, E., & Pfefferbaum, A. (2005). Corpus callosal microstructural integrity influences interhemispheric processing: A diffusion tensor imaging study. Cerebral Cortex, 15(9), 1384–1392.
Seitz, D., Widmann, U., & Seeger, U. (1999). Localized protein magnetic resonance spectroscopy of the cerebellum in detoxifying alcoholics. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 23(1), 158–163.
Shear, P. K., Jernigan, T. L., & Butters, N. (1994). Volumetric magnetic resonance imaging quantification of longitudinal brain changes in abstinent alcoholics. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 18(1), 172–176.
Sinha, R., & Li, C. S. (2007). Imaging stress-and cue-induced drug and alcohol craving: Association with relapse and clinical implications. Drug and Alcohol Review, 26(1), 25–31.
Smith, M. E., & Oscar-Berman, M. (1992). Resource-limited information processing in alcoholism. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 53(5), 514–518.
Stevens, M. C., Kaplan, R. F., & Hesselbrock, V. M. (2003). Executive–cognitive functioning in the development of antisocial personality disorder. Addictive Behaviors, 28(2), 285–300.
Stranges, S., Freudenheim, J. L., Muti, P., Farinaro, E., Russell, M., Nochajski, T. H., et al. (2004). Differential effects of alcohol drinking pattern on liver enzymes in men and women. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 28(6), 949–956.
Stranges, S., Wu, T., Dorn, J. M., Freudenheim, J. L., Muti, P., Farinaro, E., et al. (2004). Relationship of alcohol drinking pattern to risk of hypertension: A population-based study. Hypertension, 44(6), 813–819.
Streeter, C. C., Ciraulo, D. A., Harris, G. J., Kaufman, M. J., Lewis, R. F., Knapp, C. M., et al. (1998). Functional magnetic resonance imaging of alprazolam-induced changes in humans with familial alcoholism. Psychiatry Research, 82(2), 69–82.
Sullivan, E. V. (2000). Neuropsychological vulnerability to alcoholism: Evidence from neuroimaging studies. In A. Noronha, M. Eckardt, & K. Warren (Eds.), Review of NIAAA’s neuroscience and behavioral research (vol. Monograph No. 34, pp. 473–508). Bethesda, MD: NIAAA.
Sullivan, E. V. (2003). Compromised pontocerebellar and cerebellothalamocortical systems: Speculations on their contributions to cognitive and motor impairment in nonamnesic alcoholism. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 27(9), 1409–1419.
Sullivan, E. V., Fama, R., Rosenbloom, M. J., & Pfefferbaum, A. (2002). A profile of neuropsychological deficits in alcoholic women. Neuropsychology, 16(1), 74–83.
Sullivan, E. V., Harding, A. J., Pentney, R., Dlugos, C., Martin, P. R., Parks, M. H., et al. (2003). Disruption of frontocerebellar circuitry and function in alcoholism. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 27(2), 301–309.
Sullivan, E. V., Marsh, L., Mathalon, D. H., Lim, K. O., & Pfefferbaum, A. (1995). Anterior hippocampal volume deficits in nonamnesic, aging chronic alcoholics. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 19(1), 110–122.
Sullivan, E. V., & Pfefferbaum, A. (2005). Neurocircuitry in alcoholism: A substrate of disruption and repair. Psychopharmacology (Berlin), 180(4), 583–594.
Sullivan, E. V., Rosenbloom, M. J., Lim, K. O., & Pfefferbaum, A. (2000). Longitudinal changes in cognition, gait, and balance in abstinent and relapsed alcoholic men: Relationships to changes in brain structure. Neuropsychology, 14(2), 178–188.
Sullivan, E. V., Rosenbloom, M. J., & Pfefferbaum, A. (2000). Pattern of motor and cognitive deficits in detoxified alcoholic men. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 24(5), 611–621.
Tapert, S. F., Brown, G. G., Kindermann, S. S., Cheung, E. H., Frank, L. R., & Brown, S. A. (2001). fMRI measurement of brain dysfunction in alcohol-dependent young women. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 21(2), 236–245.
Townshend, J. M., & Duka, T. (2003). Mixed emotions: Alcoholics’ impairments in the recognition of specific emotional facial expressions. Neuropsychologia, 41(7), 773–782.
Victor, M. (1992). The effects of alcohol on the nervous system. In C. S. Lieber (Ed.), Medical and nutritional complications of alcoholism: Mechanisms and management. (pp. 413–457). New York: Plenum.
Virkkunen, M., & Linnoila, M. (1993). Brain serotonin, type II alcoholism and impulsive violence. Journal of Studies on Alcohol (Supplement), 11, 163–169.
Volkow, N. D., Hitzemann, R., Wang, G. J., Fowler, J. S., Burr, G., Pascani, K., et al. (1992). Decreased brain metabolism in neurologically intact healthy alcoholics. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149(8), 1016–1022.
Volkow, N. D., Hitzemann, R., Wang, G. J., Fowler, J. S., Burr, G., Pascani, K., et al. (1995). Monitoring the brain’s response to alcohol with positron emission tomography. Alcohol Health and Research World, 19, 296–299.
Volkow, N. D., Wang, G. J., Maynard, L., Fowler, J. S., Jayne, B., Telang, F., et al. (2002). Effects of alcohol detoxification on dopamine D2 receptors in alcoholics: A preliminary study. Psychiatry Research, 116(3), 163–172.
Wang, L., McCarthy, G., Song, A. W., & Labar, K. S. (2005). Amygdala activation to sad pictures during high-field (4 tesla) functional magnetic resonance imaging. Emotion, 5(1), 12–22.
Wang, G. J., Volkow, N. D., Fowler, J. S., Franceschi, D., Wong, C. T., Pappas, N. R., et al. (2003). Alcohol intoxication induces greater reductions in brain metabolism in male than in female subjects. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 27(6), 909–917.
Wang, G. J., Volkow, N. D., Fowler, J. S., Pappas, N. R., Wong, C. T., Pascani, K., et al. (1998). Regional cerebral metabolism in female alcoholics of moderate severity does not differ from that of controls. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 22(8), 1850–1854.
Wang, G. J., Volkow, N. D., Roque, C. T., Cestaro, V. L., Hitzemann, R. J., Cantos, E. L., et al. (1993). Functional importance of ventricular enlargement and cortical atrophy in healthy subjects and alcoholics as assessed with PET, MR imaging, and neuropsychologic testing. Radiology, 186(1), 59–65.
Whalen, P. J., Rauch, S. L., Etcoff, N. L., McInerney, S. C., Lee, M. B., & Jenike, M. A. (1998). Masked presentations of emotional facial expressions modulate amygdala activity without explicit knowledge. Journal of Neuroscience, 18(1), 411–418.
White, A. M., Matthews, D. B., & Best, P. J. (2000). Ethanol, memory, and hippocampal function: A review of recent findings. Hippocampus, 10, 88–93.
Whitfield, J. B., Zhu, G., Madden, P. A., Neale, M. C., Heath, A. C., & Martin, N. G. (2004). The genetics of alcohol intake and of alcohol dependence. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 28(8), 1153–1160.
Wilkinson, D. A., & Carlen, P. L. (1980). Relation of neuropsychological test performance in alcoholics to brain morphology measured by computed tomography. Advances in Experimental and Medical Biology, 126, 683–699.
Wilkinson, D. A., & Carlen, P. L. (1982). Morphological abnormalities in the brains of alcoholics: Relationship to age, psychological test scores and patient type. In W. G. Wood & M. F. Elias (Eds.), Alcoholism and Aging: Advances in Research (pp. 61–77). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Wilson, G. T., & Niaura, R. (1984). Alcohol and the disinhibition of sexual responsiveness. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 45(3), 219–224.
Winston, J. S., O’Doherty, J., & Dolan, R. J. (2003). Common and distinct neural responses during direct and incidental processing of multiple facial emotions. Neuroimage, 20(1), 84–97.
Wise, R. A. (1988). Psychomotor stimulant properties of addictive drugs. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 537, 228–234.
Wuethrich, B. (2001). Does alcohol damage female brains more? Science, 291(5511), 2077–2079.
Yonker, J. E., Nilsson, L. G., Herlitz, A., & Anthenelli, R. M. (2005). Sex differences in spatial visualization and episodic memory as a function of alcohol consumption. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 40(3), 201–207.
Zhang, X. L., Begleiter, H., & Porjesz, B. (1997). Is working memory intact in alcoholics? An ERP study. Psychiatry Research, 75(2), 75–89.
Acknowledgments
The writing of this paper was supported by the US Department of Health and Human Services, NIAAA (R01-AA07112, K05-AA00219, and K01-AA13402), the Medical Research Service of the US Department of Veterans Affairs, and the Alcoholic Beverage Medical Research Foundation.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Oscar-Berman, M., Marinković, K. Alcohol: Effects on Neurobehavioral Functions and the Brain. Neuropsychol Rev 17, 239–257 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-007-9038-6
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-007-9038-6