Skip to main content
Log in

Promoting Educational Resiliency in Youth with Incarcerated Parents: The Impact of Parental Incarceration, School Characteristics, and Connectedness on School Outcomes

  • Empirical Research
  • Published:
Journal of Youth and Adolescence Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The United States has the highest incarceration rate in the world, and as a result, one of the largest populations of incarcerated parents. Growing evidence suggests that the incarceration of a parent may be associated with a number of risk factors in adolescence, including school drop out. Taking a developmental ecological approach, this study used multilevel modeling to examine the association of parental incarceration on truancy, academic achievement, and lifetime educational attainment using the National Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent Health (48.3 % female; 46 % minority status). Individual characteristics, such as school and family connectedness, and school characteristics, such as school size and mental health services, were examined to determine whether they significantly reduced the risk associated with parental incarceration. Our results revealed small but significant risks associated with parental incarceration for all outcomes, above and beyond individual and school level characteristics. Family and school connectedness were identified as potential compensatory factors, regardless of parental incarceration history, for academic achievement and truancy. School connectedness did not reduce the risk associated with parental incarceration when examining highest level of education. This study describes the school related risks associated with parental incarceration, while revealing potential areas for school-based prevention and intervention for adolescents.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Brofenbrenner, U., & Ceci, S. (1994). Nature-nurture reconceptualized in developmental perspective: A bioecological model. Psychological Review, 101(4), 568–586.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Catalano, R., Haggerty, K., Oesterle, S., Fleming, C., & Hawkins, J. D. (2004). The importance of bonding to school for healthy development: Findings from the Social Development Research Group. Journal of School Health, 74(7), 252–262. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3502_1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chantala, K. (2006). Guidelines for analyzing add health data. Chapel Hill: Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cho, R. M. (2009a). Impact of maternal imprisonment on children’s probability of grade retention. Journal of Urban Economics, 65(11–23), 2008. doi:10.1016/j.jue.09.004.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cho, R. M. (2009b). The impact of maternal imprisonment on children’s educational achievement: Results from children in Chicago public school. Journal of Human Resources, 44, 772–797.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cho, R. M. (2010). Maternal incarceration and children’s adolescent outcomes: Timing and dosage. Social Service Review, 84(2), 257–282. doi:10.1086/653456.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cho, R. M. (2011). Understanding the mechanism behind maternal imprisonment and adolescent school drop out. Family Relations, 60, 272–289. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3729.2011.00649.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Christenson, S., & Thurlow, M. (2004). School dropouts: Prevention considerations, interventions and challenges. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13(1), 36–39. doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.01301010.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dallaire, D. H. (2007). Incarcerated mothers and fathers: A comparison of risks for children and families. Family Relations, 56(5), 440–453. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3729.2007.00472.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dallaire, D., Ciccone, A., & Wilson, L. (2010). Teachers’ experiences with and expectations of children with incarcerated parents. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 31, 281–290. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2010.04.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eddy, J. M., & Reid, J. B. (2003). The adolescent chidlren of incarcerated parents: A developmental perspective. In J. Travis & M. Waul (Eds.), Prisoners once removed: The impact of incarceration and reentry on chidlren, families, and communities (pp. 233–258). Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fan, X., & Chen, M. (2001). Parental involvement and students’ academic achievement: A meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 13(1), 1–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glaze, L., & Maruschak, L. (2008). Parents in prison and their minor children. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics. NJC 222984.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Hagan, J., & Dinovitzer, R. (1999). Collateral consequences of imprisonment for children, communities, and prisoners. Crime and Justice, 26, 121–162.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hagan, J., & Foster, H. (2012). Intergenerational educational effects of mass imprisonment in America. Sociology of Education, 20(10), 1–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hairston, C. F. (2003). Prisoners and their families: Parenting issues during incarceration. In J. Travis & M. Waul (Eds.), Prisoners once removed: The impact of incarceration and reentry on children, families and communities (pp. 259–285). Washington, DC: The Urban Institute Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris, K. M., Halpern C. T., Whitsel, E., Hussey, J., Tabor, J., Entzel, P. & Udry, J. R. (2009). The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health: Research design [WWW document]. URL: http://www.cpc.unc.edu/projects/addhealth/design.

  • Hawkins, J., Kosterman, R., Catalano, R., Hill, K., & Abbott, R. (2005). Promoting positive adult functioning through social development intervention in childhood: Long term effects from the Seattle Social Development Project. Archives of Pediatric Adolescence Medicine, 159, 25–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jeynes, W. (2005). A meta-analysis of the relation of parental involvement to urban elementary school student academic achievement. Urban Education, 40(3), 237–269.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, E., & Easterling, B. (2012). Understanding unique effects of parental incarceration on children: Challenges, progress, and recommendations. Journal of Marriage and Family, 74, 342–356.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kierkus, C. A., & Baer, D. (2002). Social control explanation of the relationship between family structure and delinquent behaviour. A. Canadian J. Criminology, 44, 425.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leithwood, K., & Jantzi, D. (2009). A review of empirical evidence about school size effects: A policy perspective. Review of Educational Research, 79, 464–489. doi:10.3102/0034654308326158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Libbey, H. (2004). Measuring student relationships to school: Attachment, bonding, connectedness, and engagement. Journal of School Health, 74(7), 274–284.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maddox, S., & Prinz, R. (2003). School bonding in children and adolescents: Conceptualization, assessment and associated variables. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 6(1), 31–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maruschak, L. M., Glaze, L. E., & Mumula, C. J. (2010). Incarcerated Parents and their children: Findings from the Bureau of Justice Statistics. In J. Poehlmann & M. Eddy (Eds.), Children of incarcerated parents (pp. 33–55). Washington DC: The Urban Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A., & Coatsworth, J. (1998). The development of competence in favorable and unfavorable environments: Lessons from research on successful children. American Psychologist, 53(2), 205–220. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.53.2.205.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A., Hubbard, J., Gest, S., Tellegen, A., Garmezy, N., & Ramirez, M. (1999). Competence in the context of adversity: Pathways to resilience and maladaptation from childhood to late adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 143–169.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McNeely, C., & Nonnemaker, J. (2002). Promoting school connectedness: Evidence from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Journal of School Health, 72(4), 138–146.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Muller, C., Pearson, J., Riegle-Crumb, C., Harris-Requejo, J., Frank, K., Schiller, K., et al. (2007). Wave III educational data: Design and implementation of the adolescent health and academic achievement study. Chapel Hill, NC: Carolina Population Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murray, J. (2007). The cycle of punishment: Social exclusion of prisoners and their children. Criminology and Criminal Justice, 7, 55–81. doi:10.1177/1748895807072476.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murray, J., & Farrington, D. (2006). Evidence based programs for children of prisoners. Criminology and Public Policy, 5(4), 721–735. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9133.2006.00412.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murray, J., & Farrington, D. (2008). The effects of parental imprisonment on children. Crime and Justice, 37, 133–206.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murray, J., Farrington, D., & Sekol, I. (2012). Children’s antisocial behavior, mental health, drug use, and educational performance after parental incarceration: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 138(2), 175–210.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Murray, J., & Murray, L. (2010). Parental incarceration, attachment, and child psychopathology. Attachment and Human Development, 12(4), 289–309.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nesmith, A., & Ruhland, E. (2008). Children of incarcerated parents: Challenges and resiliency, in their own words. Children and Youth Services Review, 30, 1119–1130.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nichols, E., & Loper, A. (2012). Incarceration in the household: Children with incarcerated household members. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41, 1455–1471.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Osterman, K. (2000). Students’ need for belonging in the school community. Review of Educational Research, 70(3), 323–367. doi:10.3102/00346543070003323.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paternite, C. (2005). School-based mental health programs and services overview and introduction to the special issue. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33(6), 657–663.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peugh, J. (2010). A practical guide to multilevel modeling. Journal of School Psychology, 48, 85–112.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Poehlmann, J., Dallaire, D., Loper, A., & Shear, L. (2010). Children’s contact with their incarcerated parents: Research findings and recommendations. American Psychologist, 65(6), 575–598. doi:10.1037/a0020279.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Radenbusch, S., & Bryk, A. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Resnick, M. (2000). Protective factors, resiliency, and healthy youth development. Adolescent Medicine: State of the Art Reviews, 11(1), 157–164.

    Google Scholar 

  • Resnick, M., Bearman, P., Blum, R., Bauman, K., Harris, K., Jones, J., et al. (1997). Protecting adolescents form harm: Findings form the National Longitudinal Study on Adolescent Health. Journal of the American Medical Association, 278(10), 823–832.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Resnick, M. D., Harris, L. J., & Blum, R. W. (1993). The impact of caring and connectedness on adolescent health and well-being. Journal of Pediatrics and Child Health, 29, S3–S9. doi:10.1111/j.14401754.1993.tb02257.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rones, M., & Hoagwood, K. (2000). School based mental health services: A research review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 3(4), 223–241.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sack, W. H., Seidler, J., & Thomas, S. (1976). The children of imprisoned parents: A psychosocial exploration. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 46(4), 618–628.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shlafer, R. J., & Poehlmann, J. (2011). Adolescence in the context of parental incarceration: Family, school, and community factors. In J. Poehlmann & M. Eddy (Eds.), Children of incarcerated parents (pp. 13–32). Washington, DC: The Urban Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stanton, A. (1980). When mothers go to jail. Massachusetts: Lexington Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Travis, J., & Waul, M. (2003). Prisoners once removed: The children and families of prisoners. In J. Travis & M. Waul (Eds.), Prisoners once removed: The children and families of prisoners (pp. 1–33). Washington, DC: The Urban Institute Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trice, A., & Breuster, J. (2004). The effects of maternal incarceration on adolescent children. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 19(1), 27–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). (2000). The Dakar framework for action: Education for all: Meeting our collective commitments. Paris, France.

  • Waters, S., & Cross, D. (2010). Measuring students’ connectedness to school, teachers, and family: Validation of three scales. School Psychology Quarterly, 25(3), 164–177.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, B., Catron, T., Harris, V., & Phung, T. (1999). The effectiveness of traditional child psychotherapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67(1), 82–94. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.1.82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wildeman, C., Wakefield, S., & Turney, K. (2013). Misidentifying the effects of parental incarceration? A comment on Johnson and Easterling (2012). Journal of Marriage and Family, 75, 252–258.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Witherspoon, D., Schotland, M., Way, N., & Hughes, D. (2009). Connecting the dots: How connectedness to multiple contexts influences the psychological and academic adjustment of urban youth. Applied Developmental Science, 13(4), 199–216.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This research uses data from Add Health, a program project directed by Kathleen Mullan Harris and designed by J. Richard Udry, Peter S. Bearman, and Kathleen Mullan Harris at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and funded by Grant P01-HD31921 from the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, with cooperative funding from 23 other federal agencies and foundations. Special acknowledgment is due Ronald R. Rindfuss and Barbara Entwisle for assistance in the original design. Information on how to obtain the Add Health data files is available on the Add Health website (http://www.cpc.unc.edu/addhealth). This research uses data from the AHAA study, which was funded by a Grant (R01 HD040428-02, Chandra Muller, PI) from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, and a Grant (REC-0126167, Chandra Muller, PI, and Pedro Reyes, Co-PI) from the National Science Foundation. This research was also supported by Grant, 5 R24 HD042849, Population Research Center, awarded to the Population Research Center at The University of Texas at Austin by the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Health and Child Development. Opinions reflect those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the granting agencies. No direct support was received from Grant P01-HD31921 or Grant R01 HD040428-02 for this analysis.

Author Contributions

Emily B. Nichols conceived of the study, participated in its design, conducted statistical analysis and data interpretation, and drafted the manuscript; Ann B. Loper participated in the study design, interpretation of the data, and editing of the manuscript; J. Patrick Meyer participated in the design of the study, consulted on the statistical analysis, and interpretation of the data. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Emily B. Nichols.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors report no conflict of interests.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Nichols, E.B., Loper, A.B. & Meyer, J.P. Promoting Educational Resiliency in Youth with Incarcerated Parents: The Impact of Parental Incarceration, School Characteristics, and Connectedness on School Outcomes. J Youth Adolescence 45, 1090–1109 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-015-0337-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-015-0337-6

Keywords