Abstract
The deep roots of racial bias embedded in organizational (e.g., policing) systems and practices have had disturbing consequences for Black people in the US. This paper responds to the call to reduce racial bias against Black individuals in organizations by examining the policing decisions employed by narcotic enforcement agents when operating under different agency-driven performance strategies for controlling crime. Applying a multilevel design that considers narcotic offenses that are nested within individuals, we analyze narcotic arrest reports for a 19-month period from a US metropolitan city. Guided by recent research and theory on racial bias in policing, we develop and test hypotheses to determine (a) whether racial bias exist in the severity of charges issued to offenders, (b) whether these biases are influenced by two key organizational risk factors (officer job discretion and the organizational performance strategies employed to control crime), and (c) whether bias driven by risk factors occurs in the form of more severe charges for Black offenders, less severe charges for White offenders, or both. Findings from our study suggest that Black males received more severe charges for the same gram-for-gram narcotic offense than White males. Moreover, our findings suggest Black offenders received more severe charges in jurisdictions with a crime focus and less severe charges in jurisdictions that practice deterrence focus policing; however, White offenders received less severe charges under a crime-focused approach. Our findings offer several implications for organizational sciences and practice.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
This research is supported by a grant from the US Department of Justice Innovative Prosecution Strategies program.
At the time of this study, the US Drug Enforcement Administration considers marijuana a Schedule 1 narcotic substance (https://www.dea.gov/drug-scheduling).
While our primary analyses only included Schedule 1 and 2 offenses, we also conducted additional analyses using all 5 drug schedules. Results can be made available upon request.
A yoked match design joins together research subjects receiving the same stimuli or conditions (Salkind, 2012). In this case, all narcotic offenders in a given jurisdiction were subject to the same laws and policing practices; offenders were randomly stratified by gender, race, and grams of marijuana.
We also analyzed Hypothesis 1 using a one-tailed dependent samples t-test on the 17 matched pairs and our results were essentially identical to the regression results.
References
Avery, D. R., Volpone, S. D., & Holmes, I. V. O. (2018). Racial discrimination in organizations. In A. J. Colella & E. B. King (Eds.), Oxford handbook of workplace discrimination (pp. 1–26). Oxford University Press.
Braga, A., Weisburd, D., & Turchan, B. (2019). Focused deterrence strategies effects on crime: A systematic review. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 15. https://doi.org/10.1002/cl2.1051
Brewer, M. B. (1999). The psychology of prejudice: Ingroup love or outgroup hate? Journal of Social Issues, 55, 429–444.
Camp, N. P., Voigt, R., Jurafsky, D., & Eberhardt, J. L. (2021). The thin blue waveform: Racial disparities in officer prosody undermine institutional trust in the police. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. (Advance online)
Carton, A. M., & Rosette, A. S. (2011). Explaining bias against black leaders: Integrating theory on information processing and goal-based stereotyping. Academy of Management Journal, 54, 1141–1158.
Colella, A., Hebl, M., & King, E. (2017). One hundred years of discrimination research in the Journal of Applied Psychology: A sobering synopsis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 102, 500–513. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000084
Corsaro, N., & Engel, R. (2015). Most challenging of contexts: Assessing the impact of focused deterrence on serious violence in New Orleans. Criminology & Public Policy, 14, 471–505. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12142
Cox, WTL, Devine, P. G. (2014). Stereotyping to infer group membership creates plausible deniability for prejudice-based aggression. Psychological Science, 25, 340-348.
Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., Nachreiner, F., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2001). The job demands-resources model of burnout. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 499–512.
Derous, E., Ryan, A. M., & Serlie, A. W. (2014). Double jeopardy upon resumé screening: When Achmed is less employable than Aisha. Personnel Psychology, 68(3), 659–696.
Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (2000). Aversive racism and selection decisions: 1989 and 1999. Psychological Science, 11, 315–319.
Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. L., & Pearson, A. R. (2017). Aversive racism and contemporary bias. In C. G. Sibley & F. K. Barlow (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of the psychology of prejudice (pp. 267–294). Cambridge University Press.
Eberhardt, J. L., Goff, P. A., Purdie, V. J., & Davies, P. G. (2004). Seeing black: Race, crime, and visual processing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 876–893. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.87.6.876
Eberhardt, J. L., Davies, P. G., Purdie-Vaughns, V. J., & Johnson, S. L. (2006). Looking deathworthy: Perceived stereotypicality of black defendants predicts capital-sentencing outcomes. Psychological Science, 17, 383–386. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01716.x
Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A., & Buchner, A. (2007). G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program of the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39, 175–191. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03193146
Ferner, M. (2015, August). This man is serving more than 13 years in prison over two joints’ worth of marijuana. The Huffington Post. Retrieved on September 1, 2019, at https://www.huffpost.com/entry/bernard-noble-marijuana_n_55b6b838e4b0074ba5a5e160
Fryer, R. (2018). Reconciling results on racial differences in police shootings. The American Economic Review, 108, 228–233. https://doi.org/10.1257/pandp.20181004
Gaertner, S. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (1986). The aversive form of racism. In J. F. Dovidio & S. L. Gartner (Eds.), Prejudice, Discrimination, and racism (pp. 61–89). Academic Press.
Gomila, R. (2020). Logistic or linear? Estimating causal effects of experimental treatments on binary outcomes using regression analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. (Advance Online Publication). https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000920
Hedegaard, H., Minino, A.M., & Warner, M. (2018). Drug overdose deaths in the United States, 1999–2017. NCHS Data Brief, 329. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics.
Hernandez, M., Avery, D. R., Volpone, S. D., & Kaiser, C. R. (2019). Bargaining while Black: The role of race in salary negotiations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 104, 581–592.
Kahn, K. B., & Davies, P. G. (2011). Differentially dangerous? Phenotypic racial stereotypicality increases implicit bias among ingroup and outgroup members. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 14, 569–580. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430210374609
Kahn, K. B., Goff, P. A., Lee, J. K., & Motamed, D. (2016). Protecting whiteness: White phenotypic racial stereotypicality reduces police use of force. Social Psychological & Personality Science, 7, 403–411. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550616633505
Katz, J., & Sanger-Katz, M. (2018, November). “The numbers are so staggering.” Overdose deaths set a record last year. The New York Times. Retrieved September 10, 2019 at: https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/11/29/upshot/fentanyl-drug-overdose-deaths.html/
Kawakami, K., Dovidio, J. F., Moll, J., Hermsen, S., & Russin, A. (2000). Just say no (to stereotyping): Effects of training in the negation of stereotypic associations on stereotype activation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 871–888. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.78.5.871
Kerr, S. (1995). On the folly of rewarding A, while hoping for B. Academy of Management Executive, 9, 1–16.
Knox, D., Lowe, W., & Mummolo, J. (2020). Administrative records mask racially biased policing. American Political Science Review, 114, 619–637. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055420000039
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation. American Psychologist, 57, 705–717.
Mann, B. (2021). After 50 years of the war on drugs, “What good is it doing for us?” In Hear every voice. National Public Radio. Retrieved on July 1, 2021, at https://www.npr.org/2021/06/17/1006495476/after-50-years-of-the-war-on-drugs-what-good-is-it-doing-for-us
McClelland, G. H., & Judd, C. M. (1993). Statistical difficulties of detecting interactions and moderator effects. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 376–390. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.114.2.376
McCluney, C.L., King, D.D., Bryant, C.M., & Ali, A.A. (2020). From “calling in black” to “calling for antiracism resources”: The need for systemic resources to address systemic racism. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion. (Advance Online Publication). https://doi.org/10.1108/EDI-07-2020-0180
McPherson, M., Smith-Lovin, L., & Cook, J. M. (2001). Birds of a feather: Homophily in social networks. Annual Review of Sociology, 27, 415–444.
Meuris, J. (in press). Can racial diversity attenuate racial discrimination in service interactions? Evidence from cite-and-release decisions within police departments. Organization Science. (Advance Online Publication).
Mischel, W. (1977). The interaction of person and situation. In D. Magnusson & N. S. Endler (Eds.), Personality at the crossroads: Current issues in interactional psychology (pp. 333–352). Lawrence Erlbaum.
Morin, R., Parker, K., Stepler, R., & Mercer, A. (2017). Behind the badge: Amid protests and calls for reform, how police view their jobs, key issues and recent fatal encounters between Blacks and Police. Pew Research Center. Washington DC. Retrieved from http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2017/01/06171402/Police-Report_FINAL_web.pdf
National Safety Council (2017). Vital statistics cooperative program. Deaths are classified on the basis of the World Health Organization’s The International Classification of Diseases (ICD). Retrieved on September 1, 2019, at https://www.nsc.org/work-safety/tools-resources/injury-facts/chart
Nellis, A. (2016). The color of justice: Racial and ethnic disparity in state prisons. [Report]. The Sentencing Project. Washington, D.C. Retrieved on July 22, 2021, at https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/color-of-justice-racial-and-ethnic- disparity-in-state-prisons/
Patokski, J.N. (2011). When it comes to marijuana, Willie’s punishment seems to vaporize. The New York Times. Retrieved on September 1, 2019, at https://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/03/us/03ttwillie.html
Pew Research Center (2020, July). Majority of public favors giving cilivilans the power to sue police officers for misconduct. U.S. Politics & Policy, July 9. Retrieved on January 2, 2021 at https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2020/07/09/majority-of-public-favors-giving-civilians-the-power-to-sue-police-officers-for-misconduct/
Police Executive Research Forum (PERF) (2019). The workforce crisis, and what police agencies are doing about it. Washington, D.C. Retrieved on July 13, 2021 at https://www.policeforum.org/assets/WorkforceCrisis.pdf
Police Scorecard (n.d.) Retrieved on July 1, 2021, at https://policescorecard.org/
Raudenbush, S. W., & Bryk, A. S. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods. Sage Publishers.
Rosette, A. S., Leonardelli, G. J., & Phillips, K. W. (2008). The White standard: Racial bias in leader categorization. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(4), 758–777.
Salkind, N. (2012). Encyclopedia of Research Design. Sage Publishers. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412961288.n506
Saucier, D. A., Miller, C. T., & Doucet, N. (2005). Differences in helping whites and blacks: A meta-analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9, 2–16. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0901_1
Skiba, T., & Wildman, J. (2019). Uncertainty reducer, exchange deepener, or self-determination enhancer? Feeling trust versus feeling trusted in supervisor-subordinate relationship. Journal of Business Psychology, 34, 219–235. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-018-9537-x
Swencionis, J. K., & Goff, P. A. (2017). The psychological science of racial bias and policing. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 23, 398–409. https://doi.org/10.1037/law0000130
Thacher, D. (2016). Channeling police discretion: The hidden potential of focused deterrence. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 2016, 533–578. https://doi.org/10.1177/1075547017731776
Trawalter, S., Todd, A. R., Baird, A., & Richeson, J. A. (2008). Attending to threat: Race-based patterns of selective attention. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 1322–1327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2008.03.006
United States Department of Justice (DOJ) (2021, April 23). Justice Department releases $58 Million in solicitations to combat the distribution of illicit drugs and improve officer wellness. [Press Release]. Washington, D.C. Retreived on July 1, 2021, at https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/justice-department-releases-58-million-solicitations- combat-distribution-illicit-drugs-and
United States Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) (n.d.) Drug scheduling. Washington, D.C. Retrieved on September 10, 2019, at https://www.dea.gov/drug-scheduling
Vanhove, A. J., & Harms, P. D. (2015). Reconciling the two disciplines of organisational science: A comparison of findings from lab and field research. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 64(4), 637–673. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12046
Walker, S., & Katz, C. M. (2011). The Police in America (7th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
Weisburd, D., Hinkle, J., Braga, A., & Wooditch, A. (2015). Understanding the mechanisms underlying broken windows policing: The need for evaluation evidence. Journal of Research in Crime & Delinquency, 52, 589–608. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427815577837
Acknowledgements
Special acknowledgement is given to Jason Thrower, J. D., for his insight into the legal system, and friendly reviewers, Rachel Williams, Russell Matthews, and Don Zhang.
Funding
This research was supported in part by a grant from the US Department of Justice Innovative Prosecution Strategies program awarded to the Social Research and Evaluation Center (SREC) at Louisiana State University.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Rizzuto, T., Mitchell, T., Jackson, C. et al. A Field Study of Racial Bias in Policing: Implications for Organizational Sciences. J Bus Psychol 38, 63–74 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-022-09809-z
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-022-09809-z