Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Well-being and Substance Use in Emerging Adulthood: The Role of Individual and Family Factors in Childhood and Adolescence

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Child and Family Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The present study examined the long-term impact of individual and family factors during childhood and adolescence on outcomes associated with the transition to adulthood, specifically well-being and substance use. Data for this study were drawn from the Child Development Supplement (CDS) and Transition to Adulthood (TA) surveys (n = 1362), both a part of The Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID). We first examined the influence of individual and family factors from childhood and adolescence on well-being and substance use during the transition to adulthood using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). We then applied a mixture modeling approach to evaluate whether there were subgroups (latent classes) in these transitions to adulthood outcomes, and how these subgroups linked with the individual and family factors from younger years. We found that, in general, parental acceptance and psychological control in childhood and adolescence predicted all aspects of well-being during the transition to adulthood. Substance use during this transition was linked with being male, White, and heightened parental psychological control. Overall, observable differential associations between individual and family factors during childhood and adolescence and outcomes in later life highlighted a need to evaluate transitional aspects independently, rather than grouping young adults all together.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abaied, J. L., & Emond, C. (2013). Parent psychological control and responses to interpersonal stress in emerging adulthood: moderating effects of behavioral inhibition and behavioral activation. Emerging Adulthood, 1(4), 258–270. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696813485737.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aquilino, W. S., & Supple, A. J. (2001). Long-term effects of parenting practices during adolescence on well-being outcomes in young sdulthood. Journal of Family Issues, 22(3), 289–308. https://doi.org/10.1177/019251301022003002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: a theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55(5), 469–480. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066X.55.5.469.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arnett, J. J. (2005). The developmental context of substance use in emerging adulthood. Journal of Drug Issues, 35(2), 235–254.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arnett, J. J., & Tanner, J. L. (2016). Emerging adults in America: coming of age in the 21st century. Washington, DC, USA: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arnett, J. J., Žukauskiene, R., & Sugimura, K. (2014). The new life stage of emerging adulthood at ages 18-29 years: implications for mental health. The Lancet Psychiatry, 1(7), 569–576.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barber, B. K. (1996). Parental psychological control: revisiting a neglected construct. Child Development, 67, 3296–3319.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barber, B. K., Maughan, S. L. & Olsen, J. A. (2005a) Patterns of parenting across adolescence. New directions for child and adolescent development, 5–16. https://doi.org/10.1002/cd.124

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barber, B. K., & Olsen, J. A. (1997). Socialization in context: connection, regulation, and autonomy in the family, school, and neighborhood, and with peers. Journal of Adolescent Research, 12, 287–315.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barber, B., Stolz, H., Olsen, J., Collins, W., & Burchinal, M. (2005b). Parental support, psychological control, and behavioral control: assessing relevance across time, culture, and method. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 70(4), I–147..

  • Barkley, R. A., Fischer, M., Smallish, L., & Fletcher, K. (2006). Young adult outcome of hyperactive children: adaptive functioning in major life activities. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 45(2), 192–202. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.chi.0000189134.97436.e2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barry, C. M., Padilla-Walker, L. M., Madsen, S., & Nelson, L. J. (2008). The impact of maternal relationship quality on emerging adults’ prosocial tendencies: indirect effects via regulation of prosocial values. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37, 581–591.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baumrind, D. (1991). The influence of parenting style on adolescent competence and substance use. Journal of Early Adolescence, 11(1), 56–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berzin, S. C. (2010). Vulnerability in the transition to adulthood: defining risk based on youth profiles. Children and Youth Services Review, 32(4), 487–495.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berzin, S. C., & De Marco, A. C. (2010). Understanding the impact of poverty on critical events in emerging adulthood. Youth and Soceity, 42(2), 278–300.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bradley, R. H., & Corwyn, R. F. (2002). Socioeconomic status and child development. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 371–399.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brook, J. S., Lee, J. Y., Finch, S. J., & Brook, D. W. (2014). Developmental trajectories of marijuana use from adolescence to adulthood: relationship with using weapons including guns. Aggressive Behavior, 40(3), 229–237. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21520.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buu, A., Dipiazza, C., Wang, J., Puttler, L. I., Fitzgerald, H. E., & Zucker, R. A. (2009). Parent, family, and neighborhood effects on the development of child substance use and other psychopathology from preschool to the start of adulthood. Journals of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 70, 489–498.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caspi, A., Henry, B., McGee, R. O., Moffitt, T. E., & Silva, P. A. (1995). Temperamental origins of child and adolescent behavior problems: from age three to age fifteen. Child Development, 66, 55–68. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1995.tb00855.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Charles, S. T. (2010). Strength and vulnerability integration: a model of emotional we-being across adulthood. Psychological Bulletin, 136(6), 1068–1091.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chassin, L., Flora, D. B., & King, K. M. (2004). Trajectories of alcohol and drug bse and dependence from adolescence to adulthood: the effects of familial alcoholism and personality. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113(4), 483–498. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.113.4.483.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality. (2016). 2015 National survey on drug use and health: Detailed tables. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.

    Google Scholar 

  • Child Development Supplement (CDS-I, 2010), User Guide Supplement. Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan. https://psidonline.isr.umich.edu/CDS/CDS1_UGSupp.pdf.

  • Conger, R., Ge, X., Elder, G. H., Lorenz, F. O., & Simons, R. L. (1994). Economic stress, coercive family process, and developmental problems of adolescents. Child Development, 65, 541–561.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davidov, M., & Grusec, J. E. (2006). Untangling the links of parental responsiveness to distress and warmth to child outcomes. Child Development, 77(1), 44–58. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00855.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Degenhardt, L., & Hall, W. (2012). Extent of illicit drug use and dependence, and their contribution to the global burden of disease. The Lancet, 379(9810), 55–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61138-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dutra-Thomé, L. (2013). Emerging adulthood in southerns brazilians from differing socioeconomic status: Social and subjetive markers.

  • Evans, G. W., & Cassells, R. C. (2014). Childhood poverty, cumulative risk exposure, and mental health in emerging adults. Clinical Psychological Science: A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science, 2(3), 287–296. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702613501496.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ginsburg, G. S. G., Grover, R. L., & Lalongo, N. (2005). Parenting behaviors among anxious and non-anxious mothers: relation with concurrent and long-term child outcomes. Child & Family Behavior Therapy, 26(4), 23–41. https://doi.org/10.1300/J019v26n04_02.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hiscock, R., Bauld, L., Amos, A., Fidler, J. A., & Munafò, M. (2012). Socioeconomic status and smoking: a review. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1248, 107–123. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06202.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indices in covariance structure analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lamers, S. M., Westerhof, G. J., Bohlmeijer, E. T., ten Klooster, P. M., & Keyes, C. L. (2011). Evaluating the psychometric properties of the mental health continuum-short form (MHC-SF). Journal of Clinical Psychology, 67(1), 99–110. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20741.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, C.-T., McClernon, F. J., Kollins, S. H., Prybol, K., & Fuemmeler, B. F. (2013). Childhood economic strains in predicting substance use in emering adulthood: mediation effects of youth self-control and parenting practices. Jounral of Pedicatric Psychology, 38(10), 1130–1143.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, C. (2012). The role of social status during the transition from adolesece into adulthood on smoking and alcohol behaivors (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Los Angeles, LA: University of California.

  • Little, M., & Seay, D. (2014). By-gender risk paths of parental psychological control effects on emerging adult overt and relational aggression. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 31(8), 1040–1067. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407513517808.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Loth, A. K., Drabick, D. A. G., Leibenluft, E., & Hulvershorn, L. A. (2014). Do childhood externalizing disorders predict adult depression? A meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42(7), 1103–1113. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-014-9867-8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Luecken, L. J., Kraft, A., & Hagan, M. J. (2009). Negative relationships in the family-of-origin predict attenuated cortisol in emerging adults. Hormones and Behavior, 55(3), 412–417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2008.12.007.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Luthar, S. S., & Ansary, N. S. (2005). Dimensions of adolescent rebellion: risks for academic failure among how- and low-income youth. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 231–250.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Luthar, S. S., Barkin, S. H., & Crossman, E. J. (2013). “I can, therefore I must”: fragility in the upper-middle class. Development and Psychopathology, 25(4pt2), 1529–1549.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luthar, S. S., & Latendresse, S. J. (2005). Children of the affluent: challenges to well-being. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14(1), 49–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luyckx, K., Soenens, B., Vansteenkiste, M., Goossens, L., & Berzonsky, M. D. (2007). Parental psychological control and dimensions of identity formation in emerging adulthood. Journal of Family Psychology, 21(3), 546–550.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S., Burt, K. B., Roisman, G. I., Obradović, J., Long, J. D., & Tellegen, A. (2004). Resources and resilience in the transition to adulthood: continuity and change. Development and Psychopathology, 16(4), 1071–1094.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mayet, A., Legleye, S., Beck, F., Falissard, B., & Chau, N. (2016). The gateway hypothesis, common liability to addictions or the route of administration model? A modelling process linking the three theories. European Addiction Research, 22, 107–117.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McGonagle, K. A., Schoeni, R. F., Sastry, N., & Freedman, V. A. (2012). The panel study of income dynamics: overview, recent innovations, and potential for life course research. Longitudinal and Life Course Studies, 3, 268–284.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moilanen, K. L., & Manuel, M. L. (2017). Parenting, self-regulation and social competence with peers and romantic partners. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 49, 46–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2017.02.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moffitt, T. E. (1993). Adolescence-limited and life-course persistent antisocial behavior: a developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100, 674–701.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moffitt, T. E. (2003). Life-course-persistent and adolescence-limited antisocial behavior: a 10-year research review and a research agenda. In B. B. Lahey, T. E. Moffitt & A. Caspi (Eds.), Causes of conduct disorder and juvenile delinquency (pp. 49–75). New York, NY, US: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moffitt, T. E., Arseneault, L., Belsky, D., Dickson, N., Hancox, R. J., & Harrington, H., et al. (2011). A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(7), 2693–2698.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moffitt, T. E., Poulton, R., & Caspi, A. (2013). Lifelong impact of early self-control. American Scientist, 101(5), 352.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2015). Mplus user’s guide. 7th edn. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.

  • Nelson, L. J., & Padilla-Walker, L. M. (2013). Flourishing and floundering in emerging adult college students. Emerging Adulthood, 1(1), 67–78. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696812470938.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, L. J., Padilla-Walker, L. M., & Nielson, M. G. (2015). Is hovering smothering or loving? An examination of parental warmth as a moderator of relations between helicopter parenting and emerging adults’ indices of adjustment. Emerging Adulthood, 3(4), 282–285. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696815576458.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Newcomb-Anjo, S. E., Barker, E. T., & Howard, A. L. (2017). A Person-centered analysis of risk factors that compromise wellbeing in emerging adulthood. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 46(4), 867–883. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0603-2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nylund, K. L., Asparouhov, T., & Muthén, B. (2007). Deciding on the number of classes in latent class analysis a growth mixture modeling: a Monte Carlo simulation study. Structural Equation Modeling, 14, 535–569.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patrick, M. E., Wightman, P., Schoeni, R. F., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2012). Socioeconomic status and substance use among young adults: a comparison across constructs and drugs. J Study Alcohol Drugs, 73, 772–782.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, J. L., & Zill, N. (1986). Marital disruption, parent-child relationships, and behavior problems in children. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 48, 295–397.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reinherz, H. Z., Paradis, A. D., Giaconia, R. M., Stashwick, C. K., & Fitzmaurice, G. (2003). Childhood and adolescent predictors of major depression in the transition to adulthood. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(12), 2141–2147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rohner, R. P., & Khaleque, A. (2010). Testing central postulates of parental acceptance-rejection theory (PARTheory): a meta-analysis of cross-cultural studies. Journal of Family Theory and Review, 2(1), 73–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schulenberg, J. E., Bryant, A. L., & O’Malley, P. M. (2004). Taking hold of some kind of life: How developmental tasks relate to trajectories of well-being during the transition to adulthood. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 1119–1140.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, S. J., Zamboanga, B. L., Ravert, R. D., Kim, S. Y., Weisskirch, R. S., Williams, M. K., Bersamin, M., & Finley, G. E. (2009). Perceived parental relationships and health-risk behaviors in college-attending emerging adults. Journal of Marriage and Family, 71, 727–740.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seiffge-Krenke, I., Overbeek, G., & Vermulst, A. (2010). Parent-child relationship trajectories during adolescence: longitudinal associations with romantic outcomes in emerging adulthood. Journal of Adolescence, 33(1), 159–171.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sobolewski, J., & Amato, P. (2005). Economic hardship in the family of origin and children’s psychological well-Being in adulthood. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67, 141–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steinberg, L., & Lamborn, S. D. (1994). Over-time changes in adjustment and competence among adolescents from authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and neglectful families. Child Development, 65(3), 754–770. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.ep9408220878.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stone, A. L., Becker, L. G., Humber, A. M., & Catalano, R. F. (2012). Review of risk and protective factors of substance use and problem use in emerging adulthood. Addictive Behaviors, 37, 747–775.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tapert, S. F., Aarons, G. A., Sedlar, G. R., & Brown, S. A. (2001). Adolescent substance use and sexual risk-taking behavior. Journal of Adolescent Health, 28(3), 181–189. 10.1016/S1054-139X(00)00169-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Volkow, N. D., Baler, R. D., Compton, W. M., & Weiss, S. R. B. (2014). Adverse health effects of marijuana use. New England Journal of Medicine, 370(23), 2219–2227. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra1402309.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wickrama, K. A. S., Conger, R. D., Lorenz, F. O., & Jung, T. (2008). Family antecedents and consequences of trajectories of depressive symptoms from adolescence to young adulthood: a life course investigation. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 49(4), 468–483.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wickrama, K. A. S., Noh, S., & Elder, G. H. (2009). An investigation of family SES-based inequalities in depressive symptoms from early adolescence to emerging adulthood. Advances in Life Course Research, 14(4), 147–161.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Youngblade, L. M., Theokas, C., Schulenberg, J., Curry, L., Huange, I., & Novak, M. (2007). Risk and promotive factors in families, schools, and communities: a contextual model of positive youth development in adolescence. Pediatrics, 119, S47–S53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yu, C-Y., Muthén, B. (2002). Evaluation of model fit indices for latent variable models with categorical and continuous outcomes (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Los Angeles, LA: University of California.

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors thank the Panel Study of Income Dynamics research team for providing us with the data necessary for our analysis.

Funding

The collection of PSID data used in this study was partly supported by the National Institutes of Health under grant number R01 HD069609 and the National Science. Foundation under award number 1157698. No direct support was received from grant R01 HD069609 and National Science Foundation (1157698) for completing analyses and writing this manuscript. This article did not receive any funding for study design, analysis or interpretation of the data, writing the manuscript, or the decision to submit the paper for publication.

Author Contributions

C.L.: Designed the study, ran data analyses, and took lead role in drafting manuscript. T.B.: Assisted with study design and provided substantial content and editing assistance. I.M.: Assisted with literature review material.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Wisconsin at Milwaukee, Milwaukee, 53211, WI, USA

    ChienTi Plummer Lee

  2. Utah State University, Logan, UT, 84322, USA

    Troy Beckert

  3. Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, 84602, USA

    Ian Marsee

Authors
  1. ChienTi Plummer Lee
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Troy Beckert
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Ian Marsee
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to ChienTi Plummer Lee.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Ethical Approval

Data for this study was drawn from the Child Development Supplement (CDS) and Transition to Adulthood (TA) surveys from The Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID), a nationally representative longitudinal study. This article does not contain any studies with human participants recruited by any of the authors.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Plummer Lee, C., Beckert, T. & Marsee, I. Well-being and Substance Use in Emerging Adulthood: The Role of Individual and Family Factors in Childhood and Adolescence. J Child Fam Stud 27, 3853–3865 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1227-9

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1227-9

Key words

Search

Navigation