Abstract
Urbanism in the Indian subcontinent occurred in three distinct time periods in which cultural cohesion over large regions is archaeologically demonstrated through the architecture and artifacts of social, ritual, and economic activity. In the Indus (2500–1900 B.C.) and Early Historic (3rd century B.C. to 4th century A.D.) periods, cities were not necessarily tied to political territories or guided by strong political leaders, but by the Medieval period (after the 9th century A.D.), urban zones were the base for political growth, warfare, and aggrandizement. The comparison of these three eras is undertaken within a framework for defining cities that balances quantitative criteria such as population size and areal extent with two types of qualitative criteria: internal specialization on the basis of materials found within archaeological sites, and external specialization on the basis of data recovered through regional analysis. Cities from the three eras also are evaluated from the perspective of the ordinary inhabitant through the examination of the social, religious, and economic factors that prompted and rewarded urban residence. While the Indus and Early Historic cities were attractive because of the networks of opportunity found there, Medieval cities additionally benefitted from a “push” factor as ordinary inhabitants allied themselves to urban areas in times of political stress and uncertainty.
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Notes
On the basis of archaeological evidence, Kenoyer (1997b) and Shaffer (1992) have both argued that the Early Historic cities did exhibit a kind of continuity from the Indus tradition. However, the presence of similarities in cultural traditions such as shell bangles and carnelian beads cited by Kenoyer and the continuity of occupation at a few archaeological sites cited by Shaffer is a different matter than the configuration of people into cities for which there was at least a 1000-year hiatus.
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Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Gary Feinman, Heather M.-L. Miller, Gregory L. Possehl, Michael E. Smith, and three anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments. I would also like to thank Rita Wright for sharing information from the recent Beas River survey projects and Randall Law for sharing his unpublished information on Harappan stone exchange networks. Robert Brubaker provided helpful sources on the fall of Vijayanagara. Thanks to Jeff Brantingham for pointing out the triaxial definition's potential to serve as a predictive model for identifying the conditions and timing of initial urbanism. I would also like to acknowledge the UCLA Library's diligence and speed in providing interlibrary loan materials. This article is much improved thanks to their efforts, but all remaining errors of omission and commission are solely my responsibility.
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In addition to the references listed below, information about specific sites and projects is available at the University of Leiden's searchable South Asian bibliography (http://www.abia.net/wwwabia). Comprehensive textual information and visuals on the Indus Valley culture can be found at www.harappa.com.
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Smith, M.L. The Archaeology of South Asian Cities. J Archaeol Res 14, 97–142 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10814-006-9002-7
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10814-006-9002-7