Abstract
This study examined how emerging adults’ identity development and achievement of adulthood criteria were related to qualities of their friendships and romantic relationships. Participants included 710 emerging adults (ages 18–26). Results indicated that identity achievement was related positively to four romantic relationship qualities, but not to any friendship qualities. Several achieved adulthood criteria were related positively to romantic relationship qualities; however, achieved adulthood criteria were related negatively to friendship qualities. It appears that progress on salient developmental tasks of adulthood carries important implications for emerging adults’ social relationships, but in ways that are more differentiated than commonly assumed.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Afif, W. A., & Faulkner, S. L. (2000). On being ‘just friends’: The frequency and impact of sexual activity in cross-sex friendships. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 17, 205–222.
Arnett, J. J. (1997). Learning to stand alone: The contemporary American transition to adulthood in cultural and historical context. Human Development, 41, 295–315.
Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55, 469–480.
Arnett, J. J. (2003). Conceptions of the transition to adulthood among emerging adults in American ethnic groups. In J. J. Arnett & N. L. Galambos (Eds.), New directions in child and adolescent development: Exploring cultural conceptions of the transition to adulthood (Vol. 100, pp. 63–75). San Francisco: Wiley.
Arnett, J. J. (2004). Emerging adulthood: The winding road from the late teens through the twenties. New York: Oxford University Press.
Balistreri, E., Busch-Rossnagel, N. A., & Geisinger, K. F. (1995). Development and preliminary validation of the Ego Identity Process Questionnaire. Journal of Adolescence, 18, 179–192.
Berndt, T. J. (2004). Children’s friendships: Shifts over a half-century in perspectives on their development and their effects. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 50, 206–223.
Carbery, J., & Buhrmester, D. (1998). Friendship and need fulfillment during three phases of young adulthood. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 15, 393–409.
Carroll, J. S., Willoughby, B., Badger, S., Nelson, L. J., Barry, C. M., & Madsen, S. D. (2007). So close, yet so far away: The impact of varying marital horizons on emerging adulthood. Journal of Adolescent Research, 22, 219–247.
Cohen, P., Kasen, S., Chen, H., Hartmark, C., & Gordon, K. (2003). Variations in patterns of developmental transitions in the emerging adulthood period. Developmental Psychology, 39(4), 657–669.
Collins, N. L., Cooper, M. L., Albino, A., & Allard, L. (2002). Psychosocial vulnerability from adolescence to adulthood: A prospective study of attachment style differences in relationship functioning and partner choice. Journal of Personality, 70, 965–1008.
Collins, W. A., & Laursen, B. (2004). Parent-adolescent relationships and influence. In R. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (pp. 331–362). New York: Wiley.
Collins, W. A., & Madsen, S. D. (2006). Personal relationships in adolescence and early adulthood. In A. L. Vangelisti & D. Perlman (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of personal relationships (pp. 191–209). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Connolly, J. A., & Johnson, A. M. (1996). Adolescents’ romantic relationships and the structure and quality of their close personal ties. Personal Relationships, 3, 185–195.
Crouter, A. C., & Booth, A. (2006). Romance and sex in adolescence and emerging adulthood: Risk and opportunities. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Demir, M. (2008). Sweetheart, you really make me happy: Romantic relationship quality and personality as predictors of happiness among emerging adults. Journal of Happiness Studies, 9, 257–277.
Demir, M., & Weitekamp, L. A. (2006). I am so happy cause today I found my friend: Friendship and personality as predictors of happiness. Journal of Happiness Studies, 8, 181–211.
Dunphy, D. C. (1963). The social structure of urban adolescent peer groups. Sociometry, 26, 230–246.
Dyk, P. H., & Adams, G. R. (1990). Identity and intimacy: An initial investigation of three theoretical models using cross-lag panel correlations. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 19, 91–110.
Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and society. New York: Norton.
Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: Norton.
Erikson, E. H. (1982). The life cycle completed: A review. New York: Norton.
Feiring, C. (1999). Other-sex friendship networks and the development of romantic relationships in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 28, 495–512.
Feldman, S. S., Cauffman, E., Jensen, L. A., & Arnett, J. J. (2000). The (un)acceptability of betrayal: A study of college students’ evaluations of sexual betrayal by a romantic partner and betrayal of a friend’s confidence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29, 499–523.
Fraley, R., & Davis, K. E. (1997). Attachment formation and transfer in young adults’ close friendships and romantic relationships. Personal Relationships, 4, 131–144.
Furman, W., & Buhrmester, D. (1992). Age and sex differences in perceptions of networks of personal relationships. Child Development, 63, 832–837.
Galaway, B., & Huston, J. (Eds.). (1996). Youth in transition: Perspectives on research and policy. Toronto: Thompson Educational.
Ginsberg, D., & Gottman, J. M. (1986). Conversations of college roommates: Similarities and differences in male and female friendships. In J. M. Gottman & J. C. Parker (Eds.), Conversations of friends (pp. 241–291). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
Hartup, W. W. (1996). The company they keep: Friendships and their developmental significance. Child Development, 67, 1–13.
Hartup, W. W., & Stevens, N. (1997). Friendships and adaptation in the life course. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 355–370.
Havighurst, R. J. (1948). Developmental tasks and education. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Hays, R. B. (1989). The day-to-day functioning of close versus casual friendships. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 6, 21–37.
Iso-Ahola, S. (1980). Who’s turning children’s little league play into work? Parks and Recreation, 15, 51–54.
Johnson, M. P., & Leslie, L. (1982). Couple involvement and network structure: A test of the dyadic withdrawal hypothesis. Social Psychology Quarterly, 45, 34–43.
Kuttler, A., La Greca, A., & Prinstein, M. (1999). Friendship qualities and social-emotional functioning of adolescents with close, cross-sex friendships. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 9, 339–366.
Laursen, B., & Bukowski, W. M. (1997). A developmental guide to the organization of close relationships. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 21, 747–770.
Lefkowitz, E. S., Boone, T. L., & Shearer, C. L. (2004). Communication with best friends about sex-related topics during emerging adulthood. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33, 339–351.
Lewis, H. L. (2003). Differences in ego identity among college students across age, ethnicity, and gender. Identity, 3, 159–189.
Markstrom, C. A., & Kalmanir, H. M. (2001). Linkages between the psychosocial stages of identity and intimacy and the ego strengths of fidelity and love. Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, 1, 179–196.
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224–253.
Matula, K. E., Hustom, T. L., Grotevant, H. D., & Zamutt, A. (1992). Identity and dating commitment among women and men in college. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 21, 339–356.
Meeus, W. H. J., Branje, S. J. T., van der Valk, E., & de Wied, M. (2007). Relationships with intimate partner, best friend, and parents in adolescence and early adulthood: A study of the salience of the intimate partnership. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 31, 569–580.
Meeus, W., Iedema, J., Helsen, M., & Vollebergh, W. (1999). Patterns of adolescent identity development: Review of literature and longitudinal analysis. Developmental Review, 19, 419–461.
Milardo, R. M., Johnson, M. P., & Hustom, T. L. (1983). Developing close relationships: Changing patterns of interaction between pair members and social networks. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 964–976.
Monck, E. (1991). Patterns of confiding relationships among adolescent girls. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32, 333–345.
Montgomery, M. J. (2005). Psychosocial intimacy and identity: From early adolescence to emerging adulthood. Journal of Adolescent Research, 20, 346–374.
Nelson, L. J., & Barry, C. M. (2005). Distinguishing features of emerging adulthood: The role of self-classification as an adult. Journal of Adolescent Research, 20, 242–262.
Nelson, L. J., Padilla-Walker, L. M., Carroll, J. S., Madsen, S. D., Barry, C. M., & Badger, S. (2007). “If you want me to treat you like an adult, start acting like one!” Comparing the criteria for adulthood among emerging adults and their parents. Journal of Family Psychology, 21, 665–674.
Ogbu, J. U. (1988). Cultural diversity and human development. New Directions for Child Development, 42, 11–28.
Osgood, D. W., Foster, E. M., Flanagan, C., & Ruth, G. R. (2005). On your own without a net: The transition to adulthood for vulnerable populations. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Paul, E. L., & White, K. M. (1990). The development of intimate relationships in late adolescence. Adolescence, 25, 375–400.
Radmacher, K., & Azmitia, M. (2006). Are there gendered pathways to intimacy in early adolescents’ and emerging adults’ friendships? Journal of Adolescent Research, 21, 415–448.
Reis, H. T., Lin, Y., Bennett, M. E., & Nezlek, J. B. (1993). Change and consistency in social participation during early adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 29, 633–645.
Richards, M. H., Crowe, P. A., Larson, R., & Swarr, A. (1998). Developmental patterns and gender differences in the experience of peer companionship during adolescence. Child Development, 69, 154–163.
Roisman, G. I., Masten, A. S., Coatsworth, J. D., & Tellegan, A. (2004). Salient and emerging developmental tasks in the transition to adulthood. Child Development, 75, 123–133.
Sanderson, C. A., & Cantor, N. (1997). Creating satisfaction in steady dating relationships: The role of personal goals and situational affordances. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 1424–1433.
Savin-Williams, R. C., & Diamond, L. M. (2004). Sex. In R. M. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (2nd ed., pp. 189–231). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Seginer, R., & Noyman, M. S. (2005). Future orientation, identity and intimacy: Their relations in emerging adulthood. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 2, 17–37.
Sharabany, R., Gershoni, R., & Hofman, J. E. (1981). Girlfriend, boyfriend: Age and sex differences in intimate friendship. Developmental Psychology, 17, 800–808.
Sherman, A. M., DeVries, B., & Lansford, J. E. (2000). Friendship in childhood and adulthood: Lessons across the life span. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 51, 31–51.
Shulman, S., & Ben-Artzi, E. (2003). Age-related differences in the transition to adolescence to adulthood and links with family relationships. Journal of Adult Development, 10, 217–226.
Suh, E. J., Moskowitz, D. S., Fournier, M. A., & Zuroff, D. C. (2004). Gender and relationships: Influences on agentic and communal behaviors. Personal Relationships, 11, 41–59.
Sullivan, H. S. (1953). The interpersonal theory of psychiatry. New York: Norton.
Surra, C. A. (1985). Courtship types: Variations in interdependence between partners and social networks. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 357–375.
Weiss, R. S. (1974). The provisions of social relationships. In Z. Rubin (Ed.), Doing unto others (pp. 17–26). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
White, K. M., Speisman, J. C., Costos, D., & Smith, A. (1987). Relationship maturity: A conceptual and empirical approach. Contributions to Human Development, 18, 81–101.
White, K. M., Speisman, J. C., Jackson, D., Bartis, S., & Costos, D. (1986). Intimacy maturity and its correlates in young married couples. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 152–162.
Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J. (1999). Stability, change and individual differences in involvement with friends and romantic partners among adolescent females. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 28, 419–438.
Acknowledgments
The authors express appreciation to the instructors and participants at all Project READY data collection sites for their assistance. We also are grateful for the junior faculty sabbatical grant given to the first author by Loyola College in Maryland and the grant support of the Family Studies Center, which were invaluable for this manuscript to come to fruition. Finally, we thank Melanie Zimmer-Gembeck and Laura Padilla-Walker for their helpful comments on this paper.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Portions of this study were presented at the 2nd Conference on Emerging Adulthood in Miami, FL, February 2005.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Barry, C.M., Madsen, S.D., Nelson, L.J. et al. Friendship and Romantic Relationship Qualities in Emerging Adulthood: Differential Associations with Identity Development and Achieved Adulthood Criteria. J Adult Dev 16, 209–222 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-009-9067-x
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-009-9067-x