Abstract
The need to belong with peers is an essential component of development, and when individuals face peer rejection they often experience a host of negative outcomes, including internalizing and externalizing problems. There exists conflicting evidence whether peer rejection precedes, succeeds, or reciprocally influences psychopathology. This study used two longitudinal community samples recruited from Portuguese schools with data from middle childhood through early adulthood. The obtained data measured mean levels and assessed stability of peer rejection, and peer rejection’s association with demographic and psychopathology variables concurrently across development. Analyses fit developmental cascade models of peer rejection, depression, anxiety, and externalizing problems. Mean peer rejection levels remained relatively stable over time, and peer rejection scores were mildly to moderately correlated at measurement points closer together but attenuated at timepoints that were further apart in time. At some timepoints, age, and parental SES and education were associated with peer rejection. Peer rejection was associated with depression, anxiety, and externalizing problems concurrently at each time point (r = ~0.3–0.5). Developmental cascade models supported depression and anxiety temporally preceding peer rejection and some reciprocal relationships between depression and peer rejection. Anxiety was a robust temporal precedent of psychopathology and peer rejection.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
The data is not publicly available.
References
Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Integrative guide for the 1991 CBCL/4-18, YSR, and TRF profiles. University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.
Achenbach, T. M., & Dumenci, L. (2001). Advances in empirically based assessment: revised cross-informant syndromes and new DSM-oriented scales for the CBCL, YSR, and TRF: comment on Lengua, Sadowksi, Friedrich, and Fisher (2001). Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69(4), 699–702. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.69.4.699
Achenbach, T. M., Dumenci, L., & Rescorla, L. A. (2001). Ratings of relations between DSM-IV diagnostic categories and items of the CBCL/6–18, TRF, and YSR. Vermont Research, 1–9. Retrieved March 1, 2022, from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.453.4411&rep=rep1&type=pdf
Angélico, A. P., Crippa, J. A. D. S., & Loureiro, S. R. (2013). Social anxiety disorder and social skills: a critical review of the literature. International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy, 7(4), 16. https://doi.org/10.1037/H0100961
Arnarson, E. Ö., & Craighead, W. E. (2009). Prevention of depression among Icelandic adolescents. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47(7), 577–585. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.BRAT.2009.03.011
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497–529. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497
Beeson, C. M. L., Brittain, H., & Vaillancourt, T. (2020). The temporal precedence of peer rejection, rejection sensitivity, depression, and aggression across adolescence. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 51(5), 781–791. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10578-020-01008-2/TABLES/2
Boivin, M., & Hymel, S. (1997). Peer experiences and social self-perceptions: a sequential model. Developmental Psychology, 33(1), 135–145. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.33.1.135
Cillessen, A. H., & Mayeux, L. (2004). From censure to reinforcement: Developmental changes in the association between aggression and social status. Child Development, 75(1), 147–163.
Coie, J. D., Dodge, K. A., & Coppotelli, H. (1982). Dimensions and types of social status: a cross-age perspective. Developmental Psychology, 18(4), 557–570. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.18.4.557
DeRosier, M. E., Kupersmidt, J. B., & Patterson, C. J. (1994). Children’s academic and behavioral adjustment as a function of the chronicity and proximity of peer rejection. Child Development, 65(6), 1799–1813. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1467-8624.1994.TB00850.X
Dodge, K. A., Lansford, J. E., Burks, V. S., Bates, J. E., Pettit, G. S., Fontaine, R., & Price, J. M. (2003). Peer rejection and social information-processing factors in the development of aggressive behavior problems in children. Child Development, 74(2), 374–393. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.7402004
Ferguson, S., Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., & Duffy, A. L. (2016). A longitudinal study of relational aggression and victimisation in early adolescence: gender differences in the moderating effects of social status. Journal of Relationships Research, 7, e8. https://doi.org/10.1017/JRR.2016.9
Fussner, L. M., Luebbe, A. M., Mancini, K. J., & Becker, S. P. (2016). Emotion dysregulation mediates the longitudinal relation between peer rejection and depression. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 42(2), 155–166. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025416669062
Gooren, E. M. J. C., van Lier, P. A. C., Stegge, H., Terwogt, M. M., & Koot, H. M. (2011). The development of conduct problems and depressive symptoms in early elementary school children: the role of peer rejection. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 40(2), 245–253. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2011.546045
Haltigan, J. D., & Vaillancourt, T. (2014). Joint trajectories of bullying and peer victimization across elementary and middle school and associations with symptoms of psychopathology. Developmental Psychology, 50(11), 2426–2436. https://doi.org/10.1037/A0038030
Harris, J. R. (1995). Where is the child’s environment? A group socialization theory of development. Psychological Review, 102(3), 458. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.102.3.458
Hartup, W. W. (1992). Peer relations in early and middle childhood. Handbook of social development (pp. 257–281). Boston: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0694-6_11
Joiner, T. E. (2001). Defensiveness predicts peer rejection of depressed children. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39(8), 929–938. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(00)00066-8
Kim, J., & Cicchetti, D. (2010). Longitudinal pathways linking child maltreatment, emotion regulation, peer relations, and psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51(6), 706–716. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1469-7610.2009.02202.X
Krygsman, A., & Vaillancourt, T. (2017). Longitudinal associations between depression symptoms and peer experiences: evidence of symptoms-driven pathways. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 51, 20–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.APPDEV.2017.05.003
Ladd, G. W. (2006). Peer rejection, aggressive or withdrawn behavior, and psychological maladjustment from ages 5 to 12: an examination of four predictive models. Child Development, 77(4), 822–846. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1467-8624.2006.00905.X
LoParo, D., Fonseca, A. C., Matos, A. P. M., & Craighead, W. E. (2022). Anxiety and depression from childhood to young adulthood: trajectories and risk factors. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10578-022-01391-Y/TABLES/7
Masten, A. S., & Cicchetti, D. (2010). Developmental cascades. Development and Psychopathology, 22(3), 491–495. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579410000222
Merikangas, K. R., Avenevoli, S., Costello, E. J., Koretz, D., & Kessler, R. C. (2009). National comorbidity survey replication adolescent supplement (NCS-A): I. Background and measures. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 48(4), 367–379.
Morales, M. F., MacBeth, A., Swartzman, S., & Girard, L. C. (2022). Multi-trajectories of conduct problems, hyperactivity/inattention, and peer problems across childhood: results from the growing up in scotland birth cohort. Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology, 51(1), 55–69. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10802-022-00956-8/TABLES/5
Nesdale, D., & Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J. (2013). Peer rejection in childhood. The handbook of solitude (pp. 129–149). John Wiley & Sons Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118427378.CH8
Nolan, S. A., Flynn, C., & Garber, J. (2003). Prospective relations between rejection and depression in young adolescents. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(4), 745–755. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.4.745
Oh, W., Bowker, J. C., Santos, A. J., Ribeiro, O., Guedes, M., Freitas, M., Kim, H. K., Song, S., & Rubin, K. H. (2021). Distinct profiles of relationships with mothers, fathers, and best friends and social-behavioral functioning in early adolescence: A cross-Cultural Study. Child Development, 92(6), e1154–e1170. https://doi.org/10.1111/CDEV.13610
Ostrov, J. M. (2008). Forms of aggression and peer victimization during early childhood: A short-term longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36(3), 311–322. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10802-007-9179-3/FIGURES/1
Ostrov, J. M. (2010). Prospective associations between peer victimization and aggression. Child Development, 81(6), 1670–1677. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1467-8624.2010.01501.X
Ostrov, J. M., Hart, E. J., Kamper, K. E., & Godleski, S. A. (2011). Relational aggression in women during emerging adulthood: a social process model. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 29(5), 695–710. https://doi.org/10.1002/BSL.1002
Prinstein, M. J., & Aikins, J. W. (2004). Cognitive moderators of the longitudinal association between peer rejection and adolescent depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 32(2), 147–158. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JACP.0000019767.55592.63
Rose, A. J., & Rudolph, K. D. (2006). A review of sex differences in peer relationship processes: potential trade-offs for the emotional and behavioral development of girls and boys. Psychological Bulletin, 132(1), 98–131. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.98
Rose-Krasnor, L. (1997). The nature of social competence: a theoretical review. Social Development, 6(1), 111–135. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1467-9507.1997.TB00097.X
Rubin, K. H., Bukowski, W. M., & Parker, J. G. (2007). Peer interactions, relationships, and groups. Handbook of child psychology. John Wiley & Sons Inc. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470147658.CHPSY0310
Rueger, S. Y., Malecki, C. K., Pyun, Y., Aycock, C., & Coyle, S. (2016). A meta-analytic review of the association between perceived social support and depression in childhood and adolescence. Psychological Bulletin, 142(10), 1017–1067. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000058
Sameroff, A. (2009). The transactional model. The transactional model of development: how children and contexts shape each other (pp. 3–21). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/11877-001
Segrin, C. (2000). Social skills deficits associated with depression. Clinical Psychology Review, 20(3), 379–403. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7358(98)00104-4
Sentse, M., Lindenberg, S., Omvlee, A., Ormel, J., & Veenstra, R. (2010). Rejection and acceptance across contexts: parents and peers as risks and buffers for early adolescent psychopathology. the TRAILS study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38(1), 119–130. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10802-009-9351-Z/FIGURES/2
Sentse, M., Prinzie, P., & Salmivalli, C. (2017). Testing the direction of longitudinal paths between victimization, peer rejection, and different types of internalizing problems in adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 45(5), 1013–1023. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10802-016-0216-Y/FIGURES/2
Simões, A., Ferreira, J. A., Fonseca, A. C., & Rebelo, J. A. (1995). Um estudo dos distúrbios do comportamento e dificuldades de aprendizagem no ensino básico. Revista Portuguesa de Pedagogia, 29(3), 55–68.
Stroud, L. R., Papandonatos, G. D., D’Angelo, C. M., Brush, B., & Lloyd-Richardson, E. E. (2017). Sex differences in biological response to peer rejection and performance challenge across development: a pilot study. Physiology & Behavior, 169, 224–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.PHYSBEH.2016.12.005
Trentacosta, C. J., & Shaw, D. S. (2009). Emotional self-regulation, peer rejection, and antisocial behavior: developmental associations from early childhood to early adolescence. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 30(3), 356–365. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.APPDEV.2008.12.016
Vaillancourt, T., Brittain, H. L., McDougall, P., & Duku, E. (2013). Longitudinal links between childhood peer victimization, internalizing and externalizing problems, and academic functioning: developmental cascades. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41(8), 1203–1215. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10802-013-9781-5/FIGURES/1
van Lier, P. A. C., Vitaro, F., Wanner, B., Vuijk, P., & Crijnen, A. A. M. (2005). Gender differences in developmental links among antisocial behavior, friends’ antisocial behavior, and peer rejection in childhood: results from two cultures. Child Development, 76(4), 841–855. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1467-8624.2005.00881.X
Veenstra, R., Lindenberg, S., Munniksma, A., & Dijkstra, J. K. (2010). The complex relation between bullying, victimization, acceptance, and rejection: giving special attention to status, affection, and sex differences. Child Development, 81(2), 480–486. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1467-8624.2009.01411.X
Will, G. J., van Lier, P. A. C., Crone, E. A., & Güroğlu, B. (2016). Chronic childhood peer rejection is associated with heightened neural responses to social exclusion during adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44(1), 43–55. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10802-015-9983-0/TABLES/2
Wood, J. J., Baker, B. L., & Cowan, P. A. (2010). Behavior problems and peer rejection in preschool boys and girls. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 163(1), 72–88. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221320209597969
Yao, Z., & Enright, R. (2021). A longitudinal analysis of social skills and adolescent depression: a multivariate latent growth approach. International Journal of Psychological Research, 14(1), 66–77. https://doi.org/10.21500/20112084.4793
Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., Nesdale, D., Webb, H. J., Khatibi, M., & Downey, G. (2016). A longitudinal rejection sensitivity model of depression and aggression: unique roles of anxiety, anger, blame, withdrawal and retribution. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44(7), 1291–1307. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10802-016-0127-Y/TABLES/2
Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., Waters, A. M., & Kindermann, T. (2010). A social relations analysis of liking for and by peers: associations with gender, depression, peer perception, and worry. Journal of Adolescence, 33(1), 69–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ADOLESCENCE.2009.05.005
Funding
This project was financed and managed by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology, Research Project: PTDC / PSI-PED / 104849/20.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical Approval
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from parents and assent obtained from individual participants included in the study.
Conflicts of Interest
None.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
LoParo, D., Fonseca, A.C., Matos, A.P. et al. A Developmental Cascade Analysis of Peer Rejection, Depression, Anxiety, and Externalizing Problems from Childhood through Young Adulthood. Res Child Adolesc Psychopathol 51, 1303–1314 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-023-01053-0
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-023-01053-0