Abstract
Teacher-student relations have a significant correlation with student motivation, academic performance and discipline. For example, the meta-analysis by Hattie (2009) revealed an effect size of d = 0.72 for the effect of relations on achievement, and the meta-analysis by Finn, Schrodt, Witt, Elledge, Jernberg & Larson (Communication Education, 58(4), 516–537, 2009) showed a correlation of 0.55 between the perceived care by teachers and student achievement. These were established by comparing students, but comparisons of schools or countries with high or low levels of teacher-student relations are missing. The present paper analyses the correlation between teacher-student relations and Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2009 results in science and mathematics on three levels: student, school and country level. The study shows a weak positive relationship (correlations up to 0.16) at the student level, and a positive relationship (up to 0.34) at school level. The multilevel analysis revealed a negative relationship between teacher-student relations and PISA results (r = −.51) at the country level. To understand the negative relationship, also known as an ecological fallacy, the countries were grouped into geographical regions in which the relationship was insignificant and the positive effect of teacher-student relations was found by comparing with some neighboring countries. Implications for practice and further studies are proposed on the basis of these findings.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adams, R. & Wu, M. (Eds.) (2002). PISA 2000 Technical Report. Paris, France: OECD. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisaproducts/33688233.pdf.
Ammermueller, A. & Pischke, J.-S. (2009). Peer effects in European primary schools: Evidence from the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study. Journal of Labor Economics, 27(3), 315–348.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Bernstein-Yamashiro, B. & Noam, G. G. (2013). Teacher-student relationships: A growing field of study. New Directions for Youth Development, 137, 15–26.
Bowlby, J. (1969). Loss. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Brewer, P. & Venaik, S. (2014). The ecological fallacy in National Culture Research. Organization Studies, 35(7), 1063–1086.
Buckley, J. (2009). Cross-national response styles in international educational assessments: Evidence from PISA 2006. Retrieved from https://edsurveys.rti.org/PISA/documents/Buckley_PISAresponsestyle.pdf.
Collinson, V., Killeavy, M. & Stephenson, H. (1999). Exemplary teachers: Practicing an ethic of care in England, Ireland, and the United States. Journal for a Just and Caring Education, 5, 349–366.
Connell, J. P. & Wellborn, J. G. (1991). Competence, autonomy, and relatedness: A motivational analysis of self-system processes. In M. Gunnar & L. A. Sroufe (Eds.), Minnesota symposium on child psychology, 22 (pp. 43–77). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Cornelius-White, J. (2007). Learner-centered teacher-student relationships are effective: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 113–143.
Crosnoe, R., Morrison, F., Burchinal, M., Pianta, R., Keating, D., Friedman, S. L. & Clarke-Stewart, K. A. (2010). Instruction, teacher–student relations, and math achievement trajectories in Elementary School. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(2), 407–417.
Database—PISA (2009). Retrieved from http://pisa2009.acer.edu.au/downloads.php.
Deci, E. L. & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York, NY: Plenum.
Deci, E. L. & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Facilitating optimal motivation and psychological well-being across life’s domains. Canadian Psychology, 49, 14–23.
Fan, F. A. (2012). Teacher: Students’ interpersonal relationships and students’ academic achievements in social studies. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 18(4), 483–490.
Fast, L. A., Lewis, J. L., Bryant, M. J., Bocian, K. A., Cardullo, R. A., Rettig, M. & Hammond, K. A. (2010). Does math self-efficacy mediate the effect of the perceived classroom environment on standardized math test performance? Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(3), 729–740.
Finn, A. N., Schrodt, P., Witt, P. L., Elledge, N., Jernberg, K. A. & Larson, L. M. (2009). A meta-analytical review of teacher credibility and its associations with teacher behaviors and student outcomes. Communication Education, 58(4), 516–537.
Finney, J. W., Humphreys, K., Kivlahan, D. R. & Harris, A. H. S. (2011). Why health care process performance measures can have different relationships to outcomes for patients and hospitals: Understanding the ecological fallacy. American Journal of Public Health, 101(9), 1635–1642.
Fisher, D. & Rickards, T. (1998). Associations between teacher-student interpersonal behaviour and student attitude to mathematics. Mathematics Education Research, 10(1), 3–15.
Fraser, B. J. (1998). The birth of a new journal: Editor’s introduction. Learning Environments Research, 1, 1–5.
Furrer, C. & Skinner, E. (2003). Sense of relatedness as a factor in children’s academic engagement and performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 148–162.
Goldstein, L. S. (1999). The relational zone: The role of caring relationships in the co-construction of mind. American Educational Research Journal, 36, 647–673.
Hamre, B. K. & Pianta, R. C. (2001). Early teacher–child relationships and the trajectory of children’s school outcomes through eighth grade. Child Development, 72, 625–638.
Hattie, J. A. C. (2009). A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. London, England: Routledge.
Henno, I. (2015). Loodusteaduste õppimisest ja õpetamisest Eesti koolides Rahvusvaheliste võrdlusuuringute taustal [Science learning and teaching in Estonian schools behind international comparative studies]. Tallinn, Estonian: Tallinn University (In Estonian).
Hughes, J. N. (2011). Longitudinal effects of teacher and student perceptions of teacher-student relationship qualities on academic adjustment. The Elementary School Journal, 112(1), 38–60.
Hughes, J. N., Wu, J. Y., Kwok, O., Villarreal, V. & Johnson, A. Y. (2012). Indirect effects of child reports of teacher–student relationship on achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104(2), 350–365.
Kamens, D.H. & Benavot, A. (2011). National, regional and international learning assessments: trends among developing countries, 1960–2009. Globalisation, Societies and Education, 9(2), 285–300. Retrieved from doi:10.1080/14767724.2011.577337.
Kjærnsli, M. & Lie, S. (2011). Students’ preference for science careers: International comparisons based on PISA 2006. International Journal of Science Education, 33(1), 121–144.
Korthagen, K., Klaassen, C. & Russell, T. (2000). New learning in teacher education. In R. J. Simons, J. van der Linden & T. Duffy (Eds.), New learning (pp. 243–259). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer.
Krips, H. (2014). Õpetaja Suhtlemiskompetentsusest ja Selle Arendamisest Õpetajakoolituses [Teachers` Communication Competence and its Development in Teacher Training]. In Edgar Krull et al. (Eds.), Õpetajate Professionaalne Areng ja Selle Toetemine (pp. 103–117). Estonia: Eesti Ülikoolide Kirjastus.
La Paro, K. M. & Pianta, R. C. (2003). CLASS: Classroom Assessment Scoring System. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press.
Leikin, R. & Levav-Waynberg, A. (2007). Exploring mathematics teacher knowledge to explain the gap between theory-based recommendations and school practice in the use of connecting tasks. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 66(3), 349–371.
Loogma, K., Ruus, V. R., Talts, L. & Poom-Valickis, K. (2009). Õpetaja professionaalsus ning tõhusama õpetamis- ja õppimiskeskkonna loomine. OECD rahvusvahelise õpetamise ja õppimise uuringu TALIS tulemused. [Teacher’s professionalism and creating more effective teaching and learning environment. The results of OECD Teaching and Learning International Survey]. Tallinn, Estonian: Tallinna Ülikooli haridusuuringute keskus. [In Estonian].
Luke, D. A. (2004). Multilevel modeling (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Marzano, R. J. & Marzano, J. S. (2003). The key to classroom management. Educational Leadership, 61(1), 6–13.
Marzano, R. J., Marzano, J. S. & Pickering, D. J. (2003). Classroom management that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
McCormick, M. P., O'Connor, E. E., Cappella, E. & McClowry, S. G. (2013). Teacher–child relationships and academic achievement: A multilevel propensity score model approach. Journal of School Psychology, 51(5), 611–624.
Minor, L. C., Onwuegbuzie, A. J., Witcher, A. E. & James, T. L. (2002). Preservice teachers’ educational beliefs and their perceptions of characteristics of effective teachers. Journal of Educational Research, 96(2), 116–128.
Noddings, N. (1992). The challenge to care in schools: An alternative approach to education. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2010a). PISA 2009 Results: What Students Know and Can Do—Student Performance in Reading, Mathematics and Science (Volume I). Paris, France: Author.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2010b). PISA 2009 Results: What Makes a School Successful?—Resources, Policies and Practices (Volume IV). Paris, France: Author.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2012). PISA 2009 Technical Report. Paris, France: Author.
Patrick, H., Anderman, L. H., Ryan, A. M., Edelin, K. & Midgley, C. (2001). Teachers’ communication of goal orientations in four fifth-grade classrooms. Elementary School Journal, 102, 35–58.
Pianta, R. C. (1999). Enhancing student-teacher relationships: A developmental systems perspective. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Planel, C. (1997). National cultural values and their role in learning: A comparative ethnographic study of state primary schooling in England and France. Comparative Education, 33(3), 349–373.
Riconscente, M. M. (2014). Effects of perceived teacher practices on Latino High School Students’ Interest, self-efficacy, and achievement in mathematics. The Journal of Experimental Education, 82(1), 51–73.
Rindermann, H. & Ceci, S. J. (2009). Educational policy and country outcomes in international cognitive competence studies. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4, 551–557.
Roorda, D. L., Koomen, H. M. Y., Spilt, J. L. & Oort, F. J. (2011). The influence of affective teacher-student relationships on students’ school engagement and achievement: A meta-analytic approach. Review of Educational Research, 81(4), 493–529.
Rutter, M. & Maughan, B. (2002). School effectiveness findings 1979–2002. Journal of School Psychology, 40(6), 451–475.
Säälik, Ü., Mikk, J., Krips, H. & Kalk, K. (2014). Õpilaste poolt õpetaja käitumisviisidele antavate hinnangute seostest õpilaste õpihuvi ning õpieduga [The relationship between stdents` assessments of teachers` behaviour and students` interest in learning and success]. In E. Krull et al. (Eds.), Õpetajate professionaalne areng ja selle toetamine (pp. 83–102). Estonia: Eesti Ülikoolide Kirjastus.
Sanders, M. G. & Jordan, W. J. (2000). Student-Teacher relations and academic achievement in high school. In M. G. Sanders (Ed.), Schooling students placed at risk (pp. 53–68). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Retrieved from http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=lSltA45YAkQC&oi=fnd&pg=PA53&dq=related:Qv2gopEKF94J:scholar.google.com/&ots=MgD_Im30ad&sig=BrAmHvUfOoMcfiEDFliaoIkWU18#v=onepage&q&f=false.
Schmitt, D. P., Allik, J., McCrae, R. R. & Benet-Martinez, V. (2007). The geographic distribution of Big Five personality traits. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 38, 173–212.
Shen, C. & Tam, H. P. (2008). The paradoxical relationship between student achievement and self-perception: A cross-national analysis based on three waves of TIMSS data. Educational Research & Evaluation, 14(1), 87–100.
Smith, R. B. (2009). Global human development: Accounting for its regional disparities. Quality & Quantity, 43(1), 1–34.
Täht, K. (2012). The cross-cultural view on students’ motivation to learn. Dissertationes Psychologicae Universitatis Tartuensis, 37. Tartu, Estonia: University of Tartu Press.
Täht, K. & Must, O. (2013). Comparability of educational achievement and learning attitudes across nations. Educational Research and Evaluation, 19(1), 19–38.
Tao, Y., Oliver, M. & Venville, G. (2013). A comparison of approaches to the teaching and learning of science in Chinese and Australian elementary classrooms: Cultural and socioeconomic complexities. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 50(1), 33–61.
Teven, J. J. & McCroskey, J. C. (1997). The relationship of perceived teacher caring with student learning and teacher evaluation. Communication Education, 46, 1–9.
Urdan, T. & Schoenfelder, E. (2006). Classroom effects on student motivation: Goal structures, social relationships, and competence beliefs. Journal of School Psychology, 44, 331–349.
Veiga, F. H. (2005). What is missing for students to be good at mathematics. Psicologia Educação Cultura, 9(1), 35–53.
Wentzel, K. R. (2003). Motivating students to behave in socially competent ways. Theory Into Practice, 42(4), 319–326.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the European Social Fund No 1.2.0302.09-004.
We are also thankful to Karin Täht for the data analysis.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Mikk, J., Krips, H., Säälik, Ü. et al. Relationships Between Student Perception of Teacher-Student Relations and PISA Results in Mathematics and Science. Int J of Sci and Math Educ 14, 1437–1454 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-015-9669-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-015-9669-7