Skip to main content
Log in

Differential Habitat Selection by Pygmy Grasshopper Color Morphs; Interactive Effects of Temperature and Predator Avoidance

  • Research article
  • Published:
Evolutionary Ecology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Habitat selection behavior is affected by complex interplays between competing requirements. Here we combine field observations with laboratory experiments to examine how thermal benefits and predator avoidance influences habitat selection by different color morphs of the pygmy grasshopper Tetrix undulata. The composition of substrate types and surface temperatures in areas selected by free-ranging individuals did not reflect relative availability, and varied among morphs and sexes. Surface temperatures of selected habitats deviated less from the range of preferred body temperatures than would result from a random utilization of surface temperatures, suggesting that grasshoppers selected habitats with thermal properties which were suitable for maintaining preferred body temperatures. The thermal property of habitats occupied by different color morphs suggests that darker morphs (which absorb more solar radiation) selected cooler habitats to avoid overheating. Dissimilarities in substrate use among color morphs in the field and laboratory emphasize a role also of predator avoidance by background matching for habitat choice. The degree of habitat selectivity was lowest in the striped morph, supporting the notion that a disruptive color pattern may constitute a solution to the trade-off between relative crypsis in different visual backgrounds. Finally, individuals modified their habitat use when subjected to elevated risk of predation, showing that habitat choice is governed by conflicting priorities. Collectively, our findings suggest that, as a result of direct and indirect effects of coloration on performance, alternative color morphs use different solutions to the trade-off between competing requirements. Our results also lend support to the notion that relative fitness of alternative color morphs and sexes may be dependent on microhabitat selection, as predicted by the theory of multiple niche polymorphisms.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • J. Ahnesjö A. Forsman (2003) ArticleTitleCorrelated evolution of color pattern and body size in polymorphic pygmy grasshoppers, Tetrix undulata J. Evol. Biol. 16 1308–1318 Occurrence Handle10.1046/j.1420-9101.2003.00610.x Occurrence Handle14640422

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • G.E. Belowsky J.B. Slade (1993) ArticleTitleThe role of vertebrate and invertebrate predators in a grasshopper community Oikos 68 193–201

    Google Scholar 

  • A.F. Bennett (1984) ArticleTitleThermal dependence of muscle function Amer. J. Phys. 247 217–229

    Google Scholar 

  • J.S. Brown (1999) ArticleTitleVigilance, patch use and habitat selection: foraging under predation risk Evol. Ecol. Res. 1 49–71

    Google Scholar 

  • M.C. Calver J.S. Bradley (1991) ArticleTitleCan microhabitat selection explain sex-related color morph frequencies in the grasshopper Acrida conica Fabricius? Anim. Behav. 41 1101–1102 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0003-3472(05)80653-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • T.M. Casey (1981) Behavioral mechanisms of thermoregulation B. Heinrich (Eds) Insect Thermoregulation John Wiley and sons New York 79–114

    Google Scholar 

  • M.A. Chappell D.W. Whitman (1990) Grasshopper thermoregulation R.F. Chapman A. Joern (Eds) The Biology of Grasshoppers Wiley New York, NY, USA

    Google Scholar 

  • K.A. Christian R. Tracy (1981) ArticleTitleThe effect of the thermal environment on the ability of hatching land iguanas to avoid predation during dispersal Oecologia 49 218–223 Occurrence Handle10.1007/BF00349191

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • E. Civantos J Ahnesjö A. Forsman J. Martin P. Lopez (2004) ArticleTitleIndirect effects of prey coloration on predation risk: grasshoppers versus lizards Evol. Ecol. Res. 6 201–213

    Google Scholar 

  • A. Clarke (2003) ArticleTitleCosts and consequences of evolutionary temperature adaptation Trends. Ecol. Evol. 18 573–581 Occurrence Handle10.1016/j.tree.2003.08.007

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • D. Collett (1991) Modelling Binary Data Chapman & Hall London

    Google Scholar 

  • H.B. Cott (1940) Adaptive Coloration in Animals Methuen and Co London

    Google Scholar 

  • C.C. Coxwell C.E. Bock (1995) ArticleTitleSpatial variation in diurnal temperatures and the distribution and abundance of an alpine grasshopper Oecologia 104 433–439 Occurrence Handle10.1007/BF00341340

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • P. DeJong S.W.S. Gussekloo P.M. Brakefield (1996) ArticleTitleDifferences in thermal balance, body temperature and activity between non-melanistic two-spot ladybird beetles (Adalia bipunctata) under controlled conditions J. Exp. Biol. 199 2655–2666

    Google Scholar 

  • U. Dieckmann M. Doebeli (1999) ArticleTitleOn the origin of species by sympatric speciation Nature 400 354–357 Occurrence Handle10.1038/22521 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXkvFOgu7c%3D Occurrence Handle10432112

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • P.S.B. Digby (1955) ArticleTitleFactors affecting the temperature excess of insects in sunshine J. Exp. Biol. 32 279–298

    Google Scholar 

  • S. Downes R. Shine (1998) ArticleTitleHeat, safety or solitude? Using habitat selection experiments to identify a lizards’s priorities Anim. Behav. 55 1387–1396 Occurrence Handle10.1006/anbe.1997.0705 Occurrence Handle9632521

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • J.A. Endler (1978) ArticleTitleA predator’s view of animal color patterns Evol. Biol. 11 319–364

    Google Scholar 

  • J.A. Endler (1986) Interactions Between Predators and Prey Princeton University press Princeton, USA

    Google Scholar 

  • J.A. Endler (1990) ArticleTitleOn the measurement and classification of color in studies of animal color patterns Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 41 315–352

    Google Scholar 

  • J.A. Endler (1991) Interactions between predators and their prey J.R. Krebs N.B. Davies (Eds) Behavioral Ecology EditionNumber3 Blackwell Oxford UK 169–196

    Google Scholar 

  • P.G. Eterovick J.E. C. Figueira J. Vasconcellos-Neto (1997) ArticleTitleCryptic coloration and choice of escape microhabitats by grasshoppers (Orthoptera. Acrididae) Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 61 485–499 Occurrence Handle10.1006/bijl.1996.0134

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • K.E. Filchak J.B. Roethele J.L. Feder (2000) ArticleTitleNatural selection and sympatric divergence in the apple maggot Rhagoletis pomonella Nature 407 739–742 Occurrence Handle10.1038/35037578 Occurrence Handle1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXnsFWlu78%3D Occurrence Handle11048719

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • A. Forsman (1997) ArticleTitleThermal capacity of different color morphs in the pygmy grasshopper Tetrix subulata Ann. Zool. Fenn. 34 145–149

    Google Scholar 

  • A. Forsman (1999a) ArticleTitleVariation in thermal sensitivity of performance among color morphs of a pygmy grasshopper J. Evol. Biol. 12 869–878 Occurrence Handle10.1046/j.1420-9101.1999.00084.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • A. Forsman (1999b) ArticleTitleReproductive life history variation among color morphs of the pygmy grasshopper Tetrix subulata Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 67 247–261 Occurrence Handle10.1006/bijl.1998.0301

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • A. Forsman (2000) ArticleTitleSome like it hot: intra-population variation in behavioral thermoregulation in color-polymorphic pygmy grasshoppers Evol. Ecol. 14 25–38 Occurrence Handle10.1023/A:1011024320725

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • A. Forsman (2001) ArticleTitleClutch size versus clutch interval. Life history strategies in the color- polymorphic pygmy grasshopper Tetrix subulata Oecologia 129 357–366

    Google Scholar 

  • A Forsman S. Appelquist (1998) ArticleTitleVisual predators impose correlational selection on prey color pattern and behavior Behav. Ecol. 9 409–413

    Google Scholar 

  • A Forsman S. Appelquist (1999) ArticleTitleExperimental manipulation reveals differential effects of color pattern on survival in male and female pygmy grasshoppers J. Evol. Biol. 12 391–401 Occurrence Handle10.1046/j.1420-9101.1999.00041.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • A. Forsman K. Ringblom E. Civantos J. Ahnesjö (2002) ArticleTitleCoevolution of color pattern and thermoregulatory behavior in polymorphic pygmy grasshoppers Tetrix undulata Evolution 56 349–360 Occurrence Handle11926503

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • J.E. Gillis (1982) ArticleTitleSubstrate matching cues in the cryptic grasshopper Circotettix rabula rabula (Rehn and Hebbard) Anim. Behav. 30 113–116

    Google Scholar 

  • R. Halliburton (2004) Introduction to Population Genetics Pearson Education International USA

    Google Scholar 

  • P.W. Hedrick (1986) ArticleTitleGenetic polymorphism in heterogeneous environments: a decade later Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 17 535–566 Occurrence Handle10.1146/annurev.es.17.110186.002535

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heinrich, B. (1993) The Hot-Blooded Insects: Strategies and Mechanisms of Thermoregulation. Harvard University Press, Cambridge

  • P.E. Hertz R.B. Huey R.D. Stevenson (1993) ArticleTitleEvaluating temperature regulation by fieldactive ectotherms: the fallacy of the inappropriate question Am. Nat. 143 796–818 Occurrence Handle10.1086/285573

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • A. Hochkirch M. Zimmermann C. Keithahn S. Länder A. Peiter M. Folger-Ruter C. Harmuth S. Vogt M. Zimmermann F. Hellwig A. Gulau H Muhl (2002) ArticleTitleA field study of the escape behavior of Tetrix subulata (Linnaeus, 1758) and Tetrix tenuicornis (Sahlberg, 1893)(Orthoptera) Articulata 17 19–31

    Google Scholar 

  • K.T. Holst (1986) ArticleTitleThe Saltatoria of northern Europe Fauna. Entomol. Scand. 16 1–127

    Google Scholar 

  • R.B. Huey P.E. Hertz (1984) ArticleTitleIs jack-of-all temperatures a master of none? Evolution 38 441–444

    Google Scholar 

  • R.B. Huey J.G. Kingsolver (1989) ArticleTitleEvolution of thermal sensitivity of ectotherm performance Trends. Ecol. Evol. 4 131–135 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0169-5347(89)90211-5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • F.B. Isley (1938) ArticleTitleSurvival value of acridian protective coloration Ecology 19 370–389

    Google Scholar 

  • V. Jormalainen J. Tuomi (1989) ArticleTitleSexual differences in habitat selection and activity of the color polymorphic isopod Idotea baltica Anim. Behav. 38 576–585 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0003-3472(89)80002-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • W.H. Karasov (1986) ArticleTitleEnergetics, physiology and vertebrate ecology Trends. Ecol. Evol. 1 101–104 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0169-5347(86)90034-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • J.F. Kidwell M.T. Clegg F.M. Stewart T. Prout (1977) ArticleTitleRegions of stable equilibria for models of differential selection in the two sexes under random mating Genetics 85 171–183 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:CSiC3Mnos1A%3D Occurrence Handle838269

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • A.M. Kilpatrick (2003) ArticleTitleThe impact of thermoregulatory costs on foraging behavior: a test with American Crows (Corvus brachyrhychos) and eastern grey squirrels (Sciurus carolinens) Evol. Ecol. Res. 5 781–786

    Google Scholar 

  • R.B. King (1992) ArticleTitleLake Eire water snakes revisited: morph- and age specific variation in relative crypsis Evol. Ecol. 6 115–124 Occurrence Handle10.1007/BF02270706

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • J.G. Kingsolver W.B. Watt (1983) ArticleTitleThermoregulatory strategies in Colias butterflies: thermal stress and the limits to adaptation in temporally varying environments Am. Nat. 121 32–55 Occurrence Handle10.1086/284038

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • H. Levene (1953) ArticleTitleGenetic equilibrium when more than one niche is available Am. Nat. 87 331–333 Occurrence Handle10.1086/281792

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • C.C. Li (1963) ArticleTitleEquilibrium under differential selection in the sexes Evolution 17 493–496

    Google Scholar 

  • S.L. Lima (1998) ArticleTitleStress and decision making under the risk of predation: recent developments from behavioral, reproductive, and ecological perspectives Adv. Stud. Behav. 27 215–290 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0065-3454(08)60366-6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Majerus, M.E.N. (1998) Melanism: Evolution in Action. Oxford University Press

  • S. Merilaita (1998) ArticleTitleCrypsis through disruptive coloration in an isopod Proc. R. Soc. Lon. Ser. B. 265 1059–1064 Occurrence Handle10.1098/rspb.1998.0399

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • S. Merilaita V. Jormalainen (1997) ArticleTitleDifferent roles of feeding and protection in diel microhabitat choice of sexes in Idotea baltica Oecologia 122 445–451 Occurrence Handle10.1007/s004420050965

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • S. Merilaita V. Jormalainen (2000) ArticleTitleEvolution of sex differences in microhabitat choice and color polymorphism in Idotea baltica Anim. Behav. 54 769–778 Occurrence Handle10.1006/anbe.1996.0490

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • S. Merilaita J. Tuomi V. Jormalainen (1999) ArticleTitleOptimization of cryptic coloration in heterogenous habitats Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 67 151–161 Occurrence Handle10.1006/bijl.1998.0298

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • C.R. Peterson A.R. Gibson M.E. Dorcas (1993) Snake thermal ecology: the causes and consequences of body-temperature variation R.A. Seigel J.T. Collins (Eds) Snakes – Ecology and Behavior McGraw Hill New York 241–314

    Google Scholar 

  • W.C. Pitt (1999) ArticleTitleEffects of multiple vertebrate predators on grasshopper habitat selection: trade-offs due to predation risk, foraging, and thermoregulation Evol. Ecol. 13 499–515 Occurrence Handle10.1023/A:1006792726166

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • W.R. Rice S.D. Gaines (1994) ArticleTitleExtending nondirectional heterogeneity tests to evaluate simply ordered alternative hypotheses Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91 225–226 Occurrence Handle1:STN:280:ByuC3crhtlw%3D Occurrence Handle8278369

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • SAS Institute Inc. (1988) SAS/STAT User’s Guide, Release 6.03 Edition. SAS Institute Inc., Cary, North Carolina

  • S.P. Sandoval (1994) ArticleTitleDifferential visual predation on morphs of Timena cristinae (Phasmatodeae: Timemidae) and its consecuenses for host range Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 52 341–356 Occurrence Handle10.1006/bijl.1994.1055

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • I.J. Schlosser (1987) ArticleTitleThe role of predation in age-related and size-related habitat use by stream fishes Ecology 68 651–659

    Google Scholar 

  • J.C. Schultz (1981) ArticleTitleAdaptive changes in antipredator behavior of a grasshopper during development Evolution 35 175–179

    Google Scholar 

  • R. Shine L-X. Sun M. Kearney M. Fitzgerald (2002) ArticleTitleThermal correlates of foraging-site selection by Chinese pit-vipers (Gloydius shedaoensis, Viperidae) J. Thermal. Biol. 27 405–412 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0306-4565(02)00009-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • M. Slatkin (1984) ArticleTitleEcological causes of sexual dimorphism Evolution 38 622–630

    Google Scholar 

  • R.S. Sokal F.J. Rohlf (1981) Biometry EditionNumber2 Freeman and company New York

    Google Scholar 

  • R.D. Stevenson (1985) ArticleTitleBody size and limits to the daily range of body temperatures in terrestrial ectotherms Am. Nat. 125 102–117 Occurrence Handle10.1086/284330

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • J. True (2003) ArticleTitleInsect melanism: the molecules that matter Trends. Ecol. Evol. 18 640–647 Occurrence Handle10.1016/j.tree.2003.09.006

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • W.B. Watt (1968) ArticleTitleAdaptive significance of pigment polymorphism in Colias butterflies. I. Variation in melanin pigment in relation to thermoregulation Evolution 22 437–458

    Google Scholar 

  • D.W. Whitman (1987) ArticleTitleThermoregulation and daily activity patterns in a black desert grasshopper, Taenipoda eques Anim. Behav. 35 1814–1826 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0003-3472(87)80074-X

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • M. Vorobjev J. Marshall D. Osorio N. Hempel Ibarra Particlede R. Mentzel (2001) ArticleTitleColorful objects through animal eyes Col. Res. Appl. 26 214–217 Occurrence Handle10.1002/1520-6378(2001)26:1+<::AID-COL45>3.0.CO;2-A

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jonas Ahnesjö.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Ahnesjö, J., Forsman, A. Differential Habitat Selection by Pygmy Grasshopper Color Morphs; Interactive Effects of Temperature and Predator Avoidance. Evol Ecol 20, 235–257 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10682-006-6178-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10682-006-6178-8

Keywords

Navigation