Abstract
In this article we report the results of a classroom experiment in grades 5 and 6 of primary education directed at improving children’s writing skills. Our theoretical assumption is that increased fluency in the use of linguistic operations facilitates students’ attention to the meaning level of their texts, resulting in better comprehensibility. We discriminated four conditions for improving linguistic fluency: (1) implicit instruction with attention to linguistic forms, (2) explicit instruction with attention to linguistic forms, (3) implicit instruction with attention to meaning, and (4) explicit instruction with attention to meaning. The experiment consisted of a post test-only design with randomised assignment to experimental groups within a classroom. Effects of instructional conditions on children’s ability to use linguistic operations were explored in writing tasks with less constraints (LCT) or more constraints (MCT) on the translation process. Results show that the students in the experimental conditions performed better in the semantic application of linguistic operations in the LCT task, but not in the MCT task, compared to the control group. This result supports our theoretical assumption that increased fluency results in a better control of the semantic consequences of linguistic operations and therefore in better writing.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
D. Alamargot L. Chanquoy (2001) Through the models of writing NumberInSeries9 Kluwer Academic Publishers Dordrecht
J.R. Anderson (1982) ArticleTitleAcquisition of cognitive skill Psychological Review 89 IssueID4 369–406 Occurrence Handle10.1037//0033-295X.89.4.369
J.R. Anderson (1995) Learning and memory: An integrated approach John Wiley New York
C. Bereiter M. Scardamalia (1987) The psychology of written composition Lawrence Erlbaum Hillsdale, NJ
W.L. Chafe (1986) Writing in the perspective of speaking C.R. Cooper S. Greenbaum (Eds) Studying writing: Linguistic approaches Sage Beverly Hills, CA 12–39
N.A. Chenoweth J.R. Hayes (2001) ArticleTitleFluency in writing. Generating text in L1 and L2 Written Communication 18 IssueID1 80–98
F. Christensen B. Christensen (1978) Notes toward a new rhetoric Harper & Row New York
R. Graaff ParticleDe (1997) ArticleTitleThe experanto experiment: Effects of explicit instruction on second language acquisition Studies in Second Language Acquisition 19 249–276 Occurrence Handle10.1017/S0272263197002064
R. DeKeyser (1995) ArticleTitleLearning second language grammar rules. An experiment with a miniature linguistic system Studies in Second Language Acquisition 17 379–410
R. DeKeyser (1997) ArticleTitleBeyond explicit rule learning: Automatizing second language morphosyntax Studies in Second Language Acquisition 19 195–222 Occurrence Handle10.1017/S0272263197002040
R. DeKeyser (2001) Automaticity and automatization P. Robinson (Eds) Cognition and second language instruction Cambridge University Press Cambridge 125–151
C. Doughty J. Williams (1998) Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition Cambridge University Press Cambridge
N. Ellis (1993) ArticleTitleRule and instances in foreign language learning. Interactions of explicit and implicit knowledge European Journal of Cognitive Psychology 5 289–318
N.C. Ellis (1996) ArticleTitleSequencing in SLA: Phonological memory, chunking and points of order Studies in Second Language Acquisition 18 91–126
N.C. Ellis N. Laporte (1997) Contexts of acquisition: Effects of formal instruction and naturalistic exposure on second language acquisition A.M.B. Groot ParticleDe J.F. Kroll (Eds) Tutorials in bilingualism, psycholinguistic perspectives Lawrence Erlbaum Mahwah, NJ 53–83
J. Fitzgerald (1987) ArticleTitleResearch on revision in writing Review of Educational Research 57 481–506
L. Flower J.R. Hayes (1980) The dynamics of composing: Making plans and juggling constraints L.W. Gregg E.R. Steinberg (Eds) Cognitive processes in writing Lawrence Erlbaum Hillsdale, NJ 31–50
E. Gatbonton N. Segalowitz (1988) ArticleTitleCreative automatization: Principles for promoting fluency within a communicative framework TESOL Quarterly 22 IssueID3 473–492
S. Graham (1997) ArticleTitleExecutive control in the revising of students with learning and writing difficulties Journal of Educational Psychology 89 IssueID2 223–234 Occurrence Handle10.1037/0022-0663.89.2.223
J.R. Hayes (1996) A new framework for understanding cognition and affect in writing C.M. Levy S. Ransdell (Eds) The science of writing Lawrence Erlbaum Mahwah, NJ 1–27
J.R. Hayes L.S. Flower (1980) Identifying the organization of writing processes L. W. Gregg E.R. Steinberg (Eds) Cognitive processes in writing Lawrence Erlbaum Hillsdale, NJ 3–30
G. Hillocks (1986) Research on written composition. New directions for teaching ERIC/RCE Urbana, IL
J.H. Hulstijn (2001) Intentional and incidental second language vocabulary learning: A reappraisal of elaboration, rehearsal and automaticity P. Robinson (Eds) Cognition and second language instruction Cambridge University Press Cambridge 258–286
Hunt, K.W. (1970). Syntactic maturity in school children and adults. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 35(1), Chicago, IL
M. Jacobs A. Gelderen Particlevan (1997) ArticleTitleTaalbeschouwing in moderne taalmethoden; een gedetailleerde classificatie van leerstof [Reflection on language in modern textbooks; a detailed classification of subject matter] Spiegel 15 IssueID2 9–40
R.T. Kellogg (1996) A model of working memory in writing C.M. Levy S. Ransdell (Eds) The science of writing: Theories, methods, individual differences and applications Lawrence Erlbaum Mahwah, NJ 57–71
S. Krashen (1982) Principles and practice in second language acquisition Pergamon Oxford
M.H. Long (1991) Focus on form: A design feature in language teaching methodology K. Bot Particlede R. Ginsberg C. Kramsch (Eds) Foreign language research in cross-cultural perspective Cambridge University Press Cambridge 196–221
M. Long P. Robinson (1998) Focus on form; theory, research and practice C. Doughty J. Williams (Eds) Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition Cambridge University Press Cambridge 15–41
D. McCutchen (1996) ArticleTitleA capacity theory of writing: Working memory in composition Educational Psychology Review 8 IssueID3 299–325 Occurrence Handle10.1007/BF01464076
D. McCutchen C.A. Perfetti (1982) ArticleTitleCoherence and connectedness in the development of discourse production Text 2 113–139
D. McCutchen A. Covill S.H. Hoyne K. Mildes (1994) ArticleTitleIndividual differences in writing: Implications of translating fluency Journal of Educational Psychology 86 IssueID2 256–266 Occurrence Handle10.1037/0022-0663.86.2.256
J.C. Mellon (1969) Transformational sentence-combining: A method for enhancing the development of syntactic fluency in English composition National Council of Teachers of English Urbana, IL
J.M. Norris L. Ortega (2000) ArticleTitleEffectiveness of L2 instruction: A research synthesis and quantitative meta-analysis Language Learning 50 IssueID3 417–528 Occurrence Handle10.1111/0023-8333.00136
F. O’Hare (1973) Sentence combining: Improving student writing without formal grammar instruction National Council of Teachers of English Urbana, IL
A. Reber (1989) ArticleTitleImplicit learning and tacit knowledge Journal of Experimental Psychology 118 IssueID3 219–235
P. Robinson (1996) ArticleTitleLearning simple and complex second language rules under implicit, incidental, rule-search and instructed conditions Studies in Second Language Acquisition 18 27–67
P. Robinson (1997) ArticleTitleIndividual differences and the fundamental similarity of implicit and explicit adult second language learning Language Learning 47 IssueID1 45–99 Occurrence Handle10.1111/0023-8333.21997002
C. Sanz K. Morgan-Short (2004) ArticleTitlePositive evidence versus explicit rule presentation and explicit negative feedback: A computer-assisted study Language Learning 54 IssueID1 35–78 Occurrence Handle10.1111/j.1467-9922.2004.00248.x
R. Schmidt (1992) ArticleTitlePsychological mechanisms underlying second language fluency Studies in Second Language Acquisition 14 IssueID4 357–385
R. Schmidt (1993) Consciousness, learning and interlanguage pragmatics G. Kasper S. Blum-Kulka (Eds) Interlanguage pragmatics Oxford University Press New York 21–42
R. Schoonen A. Gelderen Particlevan K. Glopper Particlede J. Hulstijn A. Simis M. Stevenson P. Snellings (2003) ArticleTitleFirst language and second language writing: The role of linguistic knowledge, speed of processing and metacognitive knowledge Language Learning 53 IssueID1 165–202 Occurrence Handle10.1111/1467-9922.00213
U. Schuurs (1990) Leren schrijven voor lezers. Het effect van drie vormen van probleemgericht schrijfonderwijs op de zinsbouwvaardigheid. [Learning to write for readers. The effect of three forms of problem centered writing instruction on sentence construction skills.] Faculteit Wijsbegeerte en Maatschappijwetenschappen Enschede
P. Snellings A. Gelderen Particlevan K. Glopper Particlede (2004) ArticleTitleThe effect of enhanced lexical retrieval on L2 writing Applied Psycholinguistics 25 175–200 Occurrence Handle10.1017/S0142716404001092
L. Squire (1992) ArticleTitleDeclarative and non declarative memory: Multiple brain systems supporting learning and memory Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 4 232–243
J. Stevens (1996) Applied multivariate statistics for the social sciences EditionNumber3 Lawrence Erlbaum Hillsdale, NJ
J. Gein ParticleVan de (1991) The sense of sentences: A study into the effects of grammar instruction upon junior writing Stichting Centrum voor Onderwijsonderzoek Amsterdam
A. Gelderen ParticleVan (1997) ArticleTitleElementary students’ skills in revising; integrating quantitative and qualitative analysis Written Communication 14 IssueID3 360–397
A. Gelderen ParticleVan R. Oostdam (2002) ArticleTitleImproving linguistic fluency for writing: Effects of explicitness and focus of instruction L1-Educational Studies in Language and Literature 2 239–270 Occurrence Handle10.1023/A:1021304027877
A. Gelderen ParticleVan R. Oostdam (2004) Revision of form and meaning in learning to write comprehensible text L. Allal L. Chanquoy P. Largy (Eds) Revision of written language: Cognitive and instructional processes Kluwer Academic Publishers Dordrecht 103–123
B. VanPatten T. Cadierno (1993) ArticleTitleInput processing and second language acquisition: A role for instruction Modern Language Journal 77 45–57
Wesdorp, H. (1983). Schrijven in het voortgezet onderwijs [Writing in secondary education]. ’s-Gravenhage: SVO.
D.B. Willingham M.J. Nissen P. Bullemer (1989) ArticleTitleOn the development of procedural knowledge Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition 15 1047–1060
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
van Gelderen, A., Oostdam, R. Effects of Fluency Training on the Application of Linguistic Operations in Writing. L1-Educ Stud Lang Lit 5, 215–240 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10674-005-0332-z
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10674-005-0332-z