Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

The pluralization of policing and the rise of private policing in China

  • Published:
Crime, Law and Social Change Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Policing in China has undergone tremendous change during the economic transformation of the past three decades. This paper describes the plural policing bodies that have existed during pre- and post-reform periods in China. In the pre-reform period the policing bodies were generally public in nature with the public security police playing an important role in providing professional guidance to the other policing bodies. In the post-reform period, there has been a transition from a monopoly of public policing to an integration of public/private policing, with the public security police still playing a leading role in the policing network. Apart from the emergence of private policing (the security service industry), there is also a trend towards privatizing some previously public policing bodies in line with the movement toward strengthening the rule of law and towards privatization in general.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Dutton discussed the revival of the mass-line policing structures in the market economy and argued that “the mass line in security has become one vast network of tiny little workshops that train cadres to think in terms of the market, the contractual relation, and the monetary reward” ([7, p197]).

  2. Public police emerged in the late Qing period around 1900.

  3. Paramilitary policing units of Communist China date back to the 1930s [41].

  4. “Public service units” (shiye danwei) are nonproduction and nonprofit work units. They include scientific research institutions, educational institutions, governmental-sanctioned social and professional organizations (e.g. the Consumer Rights Association), health services, cultural organizations, and athletic organizations.

  5. Articles 13–15 of the Ordinance set the criteria for “key safety and protection units” and the specific requirements for maintaining social order in those units.

  6. The number of recorded criminal cases in 1978 and 2006 is 535, 698 and 4, 653,265 respectively, at a rate of 56/100,000 and 354/100,000 [63, pp100-101].

  7. Personal communication with a police friend.

  8. Personal communication with another police friend. One should exercise caution in interpreting official statistics on police to population ratios.

  9. Under a command economy, essential economical elements such as production, distribution, and investment or accumulation of capital were all done through state planning (via the central planning authority the Economic Planning Commission in the State Council), in contrast to through the invisible hand of the market in a market economy. The basis of the socialist economic system is socialist public ownership of the means of production, including ownership by the whole people and collective ownership. The state economy of public ownership was the leading force in the national economy.

  10. At the time Mr. Zhang was chief of the internal safety and protection office, Shekou Public Security Sub-Bureau, Shenzhen.

  11. In China the old popular saying of “big public security police, small people’s courts and negligible people’s procuracy” describes the overwhelmingly dominant role played by the public security police in the criminal justice system.

  12. Here we see a convergence with “professional police hegemony” as advanced by Johnston and Shearing [21].

References

  1. Ayling, J., Grabosky, P., & Shearing, C. (2009). Lengthening the arm of the law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Bracey, D. H. (1989). Policing the People’s Republic. In R. J. Troyer, J. P. Clark & D. G. Rojek (Eds.), Social control in the People’s Republic of China. New York: Praeger.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Brewer, J. D., Guelke, A., Hume, A., Moxon-Browne, E., & Wilford, R. (1996). People’s Republic of China. In J. D. Brewer, A. Guelke, I. Hume, E. Moxon-Browne & R. Wilford (Eds.), The police, public order and the State, pp. 130–140. London: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Cheung, T. M. (1996). Guarding China’s domestic front line: the people’s armed police and China’s stability. The China Quarterly, 146, 525–547. doi:10.1017/S0305741000045136.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Clark, J. P. (1989). Conflict management outside the courtroom of China. In R. J. Troyer, J. P. Clark & D. G. Rojek (Eds.), Social control in the People’s Republic of China, pp. 57–69. New York: Praeger.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Cohen, J. A. (1968). The criminal process in the People’s Republic of China 1949–1963: An introduction. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Dutton, M. (2005). Toward a government of the contract: Policing in the era of reform. In B. Bakken (Ed.), Crime, punishment and policing in China, pp. 189–223. New York: Rowman & Littlefield.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Editorial Office of World Military Yearbook. (2007). World military yearbook. Beijing: People’s Liberation Army.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Fan, X. (2006). Security service industry stepped into rapid development through forceful impetus. China Security Service, 7, 5–27.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Fu, H. (1990). Police reform and its implication for Chinese social control. International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, 14, 41–48.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Fu, H. (1993). The security service company in China. Journal of Security Administration, 16(1), 35–44.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Fu, H. (1994). A Case for abolishing shelter for examination: Judicial review and police powers in China. Policy Studies, 17, 41–60.

    Google Scholar 

  13. Fu, H. (2005). Zhou Yongkang and the recent police reform in China. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 38, 241–253. doi:10.1375/acri.38.2.241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Gao, Y. (2004). The 20th Anniversary of Shekou security service company. China Security Service, 1, 14–20.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Grabosky, P. (2001). Crime control in the 21st century. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 34, 221–234.

    Google Scholar 

  16. Jacobs, A. (2009). Seeking Justice, Chinese Land in Secret Jails. The New York Times, March 8 http://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/09/world/asia/09jails.html?pagewanted=2&_r=1&ref=asia. Accessed 18 March 2009.

  17. Jiao, A. Y. (1997). Crime control through saturated community policing: a corporate policing model. International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, 21, 79–89.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Jin, C. (2002). The improvement of auxiliary police system. Journal of Chinese People’s Public Security University, 98, 97–101.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Joh, E. E. (2004). The paradox of private policing. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 95, 49–131. doi:10.2307/3491382.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Johnston, L. (1992). The rebirth of private policing. London and New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  21. Johnston, L., & Shearing, C. D. (2003). Governing security: Explorations of policing and justice. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Jones, T., & Newburn, T. (1998). Private security and public policing. Oxford: Clarendon.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Jones, T., & Newburn, T. (2002). The transformation of policing?: Understanding current trends in policing systems. The British Journal of Criminology, 42, 129–146. doi:10.1093/bjc/42.1.129.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Klein, M. W., & Gatz, M. (1989). Professing the Uncertain: Problems of Lecturing on Chinese Social Control. In R. J. Troyer, J. P. Clark & D. G. Rojek (Eds.), Social control in the People’s Republic of China, pp. 169–187. New York: Praeger.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Legislative Affairs Office of the State Council. (2008). Notice of the Legislative Affairs Office of the State Council on Seeking Public Consultation on ‘Ordinance of Security Service management (Draft)’, 25 February, http://www.chinalaw.gov.cn/jsp/contentpub/browser/contentpro.jsp?contentid=co1336222556&Language=CN. Accessed July 28, 2008.

  26. Li, L. (2005). Thoughts on improving the construction of patrolling control network in the Capital. Journal of Beijing People’s Police College, 5, 14–17.

    Google Scholar 

  27. Li, S., Wang, M. & Sun, Y. (2007). The difficulties of regulating the security service industry. Outlook, 10–12, (July 23).

  28. Li, X. (1998). Zhongguo Bao’an Xue (The subject matter of security service in China). Beijing: Jinguan Jiaoyu Press.

    Google Scholar 

  29. Liu, M. (2008). A survey on the implementation of the public expenses funding standards for county level public security organs. Public Security Research, 165, 63–85.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Marx, G. (1987). The interweaving of public and private police in undercover work. In C. D. Shearing & P. C. Stenning (Eds.), Private policing. London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Nanfang News Net. (2007). Guangzhou political legal affairs secretary claimed that the media exaggerated the social order problems. January 17, http://news.xinhuanet.com/legal/2007-01/17/content_5615525.htm. Accessed July 10, 2008.

  32. National Bureau of Statistics of China. (1997). China statistical yearbook. Beijing: China Statistics Press.

    Google Scholar 

  33. National Bureau of Statistics of China. (2001). China statistical yearbook. Beijing: China Statistics Press.

    Google Scholar 

  34. National Bureau of Statistics of China. (2006). Press release of the main data from the 1% sample population survey in 2005. March 16, http://www.stats.gov.cn/was40/gjtjj_detail.jsp?searchword=%C1%F7%B6%AF%C8%CB%BF%DA&channelid=6697&record=56. Accessed October 30, 2008.

  35. National Bureau of Statistics of China. (2008). China statistical yearbook. Beijing: China Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  36. People’s Police Newspaper. (2005). “Is it OK for police vehicles to escort citizens who withdraw a large sum of money,” 16 February, p5.

  37. Sarre, R., & Prenzler, T. (2005). The law of private security in Australia. Sydney: Thomson Lawbook Co.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Shearing, C. D. (1992). The relation between public and private policing. Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, 15, 399–434.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Shearing, C. D., & Stenning, P. C. (1981). Modern private security: its growth and implications. Crime and Justice, 3, 193–245. doi:10.1086/449080.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Shenyang Public Security Bureau. (1988). History of Shenyang Public Security Bureau: 1902–1985. China: Shenyang.

    Google Scholar 

  41. Tanner, M. S. (2002). The institutional lessons of disaster: Reorganizing China’s People’s armed police after Tiananmen. In J. Mulvenon & A. N. D. Yang (Eds.), The people’s liberation army as organization, pp. 587–635. Santa Monica, CA: Rand.

    Google Scholar 

  42. Tanner, M. S., & Green, E. (2007). Principals and secret agents: central versus local control over policing and obstacles to ‘rule of law’ in China. The China Quarterly, 191, 644–670. doi:10.1017/S0305741007001634.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Trevaskes, S. (2007). The private/public security nexus in China. Social Justice (San Francisco, Calif.), 34(3/4), 38–55.

    Google Scholar 

  44. Troyer, R. J. (1989). Chinese social organization. In R. J. Troyer, J. P. Clark & D. G. Rojek (Eds.), Social control in the People’s Republic of China, pp. 3–10. New York: Praeger.

    Google Scholar 

  45. Wakefield, A. (2003). Selling security: The private policing of public police. Devon, UK: Willan.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Wakefield, A. (2009). Pluralization. In A. Wakefiled & J. Fleming (Eds.), The SAGE dictionary of policing, pp. 227–229. London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  47. Wang, T. (2005). The ‘dazzling’ security service market: a survey of current situation. China Security Service, 1, 19–23.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Wang, X. (2007). A survey of security service industry in Fujian, Jiangxi and Guangdong. China Security Service, 2, 10–19.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Wang, X. (2007). A survey of security service industry in Shanxi, Gansu, and Ningxia. China Security Service, 4, 10–16.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Wood, J., & Dupont, B. (eds). (2006). Democracy, society and the governance of security. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Wong, K. (2002). Policing in the People’s Republic of China: the road to reform in the 1990. The British Journal of Criminology, 42, 281–316. doi:10.1093/bjc/42.2.281.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Wu, Q. (2007). A survey of security service industry in Heilongjiang, Jining and Liaoning. China Security Service, 7, 14–21.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Xia, B. (2005). Embark on establishing an auxiliary police force with Chinese characteristics. Journal of Shanghai Public Security Academy, 15, 20–24.

    Google Scholar 

  54. Yangcheng Evening News. (2004). Social order joint protection teams will be dismissed from public security organs and Guangzhou vowed to support the move. September 4, http://news.sina.com.cn/c/2004-09-04/16073584037s.shtml. Accessed July 20, 2008.

  55. Ye, Y. (2002). The problems of social order joint protection. Public Security Research, 87, 49–50.

    Google Scholar 

  56. Yu, D., Zheng, X., & Su, T. (1997). The encyclopedia for chiefs of local police stations. Beijing: Red Flag Press.

    Google Scholar 

  57. Zhang, X. (2007). A survey of security service industry in Anhui, Henan and Shanghai. China Security Service, 12, 40–48.

    Google Scholar 

  58. Zhang, X. (2007). A survey of security service industry in Beijing, Tianjin and Hebei. China Security Service, 1, 12–20.

    Google Scholar 

  59. Zhang, X. (2007). A survey of security service industry in Guizhou, Guangxi and Yunnan. China Security Service, 8, 10–21.

    Google Scholar 

  60. Zhang, X. (2007). A survey of security service industry in Inner Mongolia, Hubei, Hunan and Chongqing. China Security Service, 9, 14–27.

    Google Scholar 

  61. Zhang, X. (2007). A survey of security service industry in Zhejiang, Hainan, Qinhai, and Xinjiang. China Security Service, 11, 12–23.

    Google Scholar 

  62. Zhong, L. Y. (2008). Community policing in China: Old wine in new bottles? Police Practice and Research, doi:10.1080/15614260802264594.

  63. Zhong, L. Y. (2009). Communities, crime and social capital in contemporary China. Devon, UK: Willan.

    Google Scholar 

  64. Zhong, L. Y., & Broadhurst, R. G. (2007). Building little safe and civilized communities: community crime prevention with Chinese characteristics? International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 51, 52–67. doi:10.1177/0306624X06294429.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  65. Zhu, X. (2003). The government paid for security and patrolling by security guards ensures security. Public Security Research, 135, 37–40.

    Google Scholar 

Laws, Statutes and Directives Cited

  1. Circular on clearing all social order maintenance members employed by public security organs, promulgated by the Ministry of Public Security on September 3, 2004.

  2. Implementation measures on the establishment of economic police officers, State Council General office document [1980]–310.

  3. Notice on strengthening joint protection teams, promulgated by the Ministry of Public Security on May 17, 1993 (Ministry of Public Security Document No. 1693).

  4. Ordinance on the internal safety and protection in enterprises and public service units, promulgated by the State Council (State Council Document No. 421) on September 27, 2004 and taking effect on December 1, 2004.

  5. Ordinance on the management of security service (Draft), made by the Ministry of Public Security, released for public consultation by the Legislative Affairs Office of the State Council on February 25, 2008.

  6. People’s Republic of China Constitution, Adopted at the Fifth Session of the Fifth National People’s Congress and promulgated for implementation by the Proclamation of the National People’s Congress on December 4, 1982.

  7. People’s Republic of China Police Act, passed by the 12th Plenary of the People’s Republic of China Eighth National People’s Congress Standing Committee on February 28, 1995, promulgated by the No. 40 Order of the President of the People’s Republic of China on February 28, 1995.

  8. Regulations on the management of economic police officers, promulgated by the Ministry of Public Security on July 25, 1987, and taking effect on July 25, 1987.

  9. Regulations on the public security organs’ supervision and inspection of internal safety and protection in enterprises and public service units, promulgated by the Ministry of Public Security on May 30, 2007, and taking effect on October 1, 2007 (Ministry of Public Security Document No. 93).

  10. Suggestions on reforming the police stations in enterprises and public service units, made by the ministry of public security on January 22, 1994, and approved by the State Council on April 3, 1994 (State Council Document No. 1994–19).

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank Dr Susan Trevaskes, Dr Alison Wakefield and two anonymous referees for comments on earlier versions of this paper.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Peter N. Grabosky.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Zhong, L.Y., Grabosky, P.N. The pluralization of policing and the rise of private policing in China. Crime Law Soc Change 52, 433–455 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-009-9205-1

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-009-9205-1

Keywords

Navigation