Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

School Entry After a Community-Wide Trauma: Challenges and Lessons Learned from September 11th, 2001

  • Published:
Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review Aims and scope Submit manuscript

The purpose of this paper is to describe the implementation of a school-based trauma-specific mental health program in New York City following the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001. This program aimed to serve children most at risk for developing mental health problems as a result of physical proximity (e.g., evacuation from schools surrounding the World Trade Center) to the trauma. As we present the components of the program, we will review the literature that guided our decision making. The ongoing struggle between searching for answers from established science and immediate needs in a crisis is highlighted. Lastly, a discussion of the lessons learned and recommended next steps is presented.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berliner, L., & Saunders, B. E. (1996). Treating fear and anxiety in sexually abused children: Results of a controlled 2-year follow-up study. Child Maltreatment, 1, 294–309.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, E. J. (2000). Coping after scary times: A brief cognitive-behavioral intervention for preventing the development of PTSD. Unpublished manuscript.

  • Brown, E. J. (2002, May). Posttraumatic stress disorder: Practical steps for recognizing the condition in psychiatric settings. Paper presented at the New York University School of Medicine Selected Topics in the Care of Children and Youths, New York.

  • Brown, E. J. (2003). Child physical abuse: Risk for psychopathology and efficacy of interventions. Current Psychiatry Reports, 5, 87–94.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, E. J., Albrecht, A., Munoz-Silva, D. M., McQuaid, J., & Silva, R. (2004). Treatment of children exposed to trauma: Research findings and therapy guidelines. In R. Silva (Ed.), Handbook for posttraumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents(pp. 257–286). New York: Norton Medical.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, L. M., Shiang, J., & Bongar, B. (2003). Crisis intervention. In G. Stricker, T. A. Widiger, & I. B. Weiner (Eds.), Handbook of psychology: Clinical psychology(pp. 431–451). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Celano, M., Hazzard, A., Webb, C., & McCall, C. (1996). Treatment of traumagenic beliefs among sexually abused girls and their mothers: An evaluation study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24, 1–17.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. A., & Mannarino, A. P. (1996a). A treatment outcome study for sexually abused preschool children: Initial findings. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 42–50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. A., & Mannarino, A. P. (1996b). Factors that mediate treatment outcome of sexually abused preschool children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 1402–1410.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. A., & Mannarino, A. P. (1997). A treatment study for sexually abused preschool children: Outcome during a one-year follow-up. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1228–1235.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. A., & Mannarino, A. P. (1998). Interventions for sexually abused children: Initial treatment outcome findings. Child Maltreatment, 3, 17–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conner, M. G. (2004a, February). Answers to questions about educational consulting and intervention services. Retrieved March 17, 2004, from http://www.crisiscounseling.org/Handouts/WhatIsCrisisCounseling.htm

  • Conner, M. G. (2004b, February). What is crisis counseling?Retrieved March 17, 2004, from http://www.crisiscounseling.org/Handouts/WhatIsCrisisCounseling.htm

  • Deblinger, E., Lippmann, J., & Steer, R. (1996). Sexually abused children suffering posttraumatic stress symptoms: Initial treatment outcome findings. Child Maltreatment, 1, 310–321.

    Google Scholar 

  • Erchul, W. P., & Martens, B. K. (1997). School consultation: Conceptual and empirical bases of practice. New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans, S. W. (1999). Mental health services in schools: Utilization, effectiveness, and consent. Clinical Psychology Review, 19, 165–178.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Evans, S. W., Altenderfer, L., Mirarchi, S., & Achre, C. (1996, November). Examining the cost effectiveness of schools as a service delivery site for outpatient treatment. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Advancement of Behavior Therapy, New York.

  • Farmer, E. M., Burns, B. J., Phillips, S. D., Angold, A., & Costello, E. J. (2003). Pathways into and through mental health services for children and adolescents. Psychiatric Services, 54, 60–66.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fletcher, K. E. (1996). Childhood posttraumatic stress disorder. In E. J. Mash & R. Barkley (Eds.), Childhood Psychopathology(pp. 242–276). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Friedrich, W. N. (1996). An integrated model of psychotherapy for abused children. In J. Briere, L. Berliner, J. Bulkley, C. Jenny, & T. Reid (Eds.), The APSAC handbook on child maltreatment(pp. 104–118). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gallessich, J. (1982). The profession and practice of consultation. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gist, R., & Devilly, G. J. (2002). Post-trauma debriefing: The road too frequently traveled. Lancet, 360, 741–742.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Glodich, A., Allen, J. G., & Arnold, L. (2002). Protocol for a trauma-based psychoeducational group intervention to decrease risk-taking, reenactment, and further violence exposure: Application to the public high school setting. Journal of Child and Adolescent Group Therapy, 11, 87–107.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goenjian, A. K., Karayna, I., Pynoos, R. S., Minassian, D., Najarian, L. M., Steinberg, A. M., et al. (1997). Outcome psychotherapy among early adolescents after trauma. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 536–542.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goenjian, A. K., Pynoos, R. S., Steinberg, A. M., Narjarian, L., Asarnow, J. R., Karayan, I., et al. (1995). Psychiatric comorbidity in children after the 1988 earthquake in Armenia. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 1174–1184.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, R., & Gurian, A. (2003, March). Talking to kids about terrorism and war in Iraq. The Parent Letter, 1, 1–2.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gurwitch, R. H., Sitterle, K. A., Young, B. H., & Pfefferbaum, B. (2002). The aftermath of terrorism. In A. M. La Greca, W. K. Silverman, E. M. Yernberg, & M. C. Roberts (Eds.), Helping children cope with disasters and terrorism(pp. 327–357). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoven, C. W., Duarte, C. S., & Mandell, D. J. (2003). Children’s mental health after disasters: The impact of the world trade center attack. Current Psychiatry Reports, 5, 101–107.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kolko, D. J. (1996). Individual cognitive behavioral treatment and family therapy for physically abused children and their offending parents: A comparison of clinical outcomes. Child Maltreatment, 1, 322–342.

    Google Scholar 

  • La Greca, A. M., Silverman, W. K., & Wasserstein, S. B. (1998). Children’s predisaster functioning as a predictor of posttraumatic stress following hurricane Andrew. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 883–892.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Layne, C. M., Pynoos, R. S., Saltzman, W. R., Arslanagic, B., Black, M., Savjak, N., et al. (2001). Trauma/grief-focused group psychotherapy: School-based postwar intervention with traumatized Bosnian adolescents. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 5, 277–290.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mabanglo, M. (2003). A quasi-experimental study of a school-basis psychoeducational group for traumatized school-aged children and their parent/ caregivers. Dissertation Abstracts International, 64, 1409.

    Google Scholar 

  • March, J. S., & Amaya-Jackson, L. (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder. In J. S. March (Ed.), Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents(pp. 276–300). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • March, J. S., Amaya-Jackson, L., Murray, M. C., & Schulte, A. (1998). Cognitive-behavioral psychotherapy for children and adolescents with posttraumatic stress disorder after a single-incident stressor. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 585–593.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • March, J. S., Amaya-Jackson, L., Robert, T., & Costanzo, P. (1997). Posttraumatic symptomatology in children and adolescents after an industrial fire. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1080–1088.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rauch, S. A. M., Hembree, E. A., & Foa, E. B. (2001). Acute psychosocial preventative interventions for posttraumatic stress disorder. Advances in Mind-Body Medicine, 17, 187–190.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Waxman, R. P., Weist, M. D., & Benson, D. M. (1999). Toward collaboration in the growing education–mental health interface. Clinical Psychology Review, 19, 239–253.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weist, M. D. (1999). Challenges and opportunities in expanded school mental health. Clinical Psychology Review, 19, 131–135.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zahner, G. E., & Daskalakis, C. (1997). Factors associated with mental health, general health, and school-based service use for child psyhopathology. American Journal of Public Health, 87, 1440–1448.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Brown, E.J., Bobrow, A.L. School Entry After a Community-Wide Trauma: Challenges and Lessons Learned from September 11th, 2001. Clin Child and Fam Psychol Rev 7, 211–221 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-004-6086-9

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-004-6086-9

Navigation