Abstract
Cell death plays an essential role during Drosophila embryogenesis. However, it remains an enigma as to what mechanisms determine (or select) the specific cells to be eliminated at a particular developmental stage. Is it mostly dependent on the lineage of the cell, signifying genetic predetermination, or is it due to the failure of a cell to compete for growth factors, which is more or less by chance? Recent developments in studying the molecular mechanism of cell death during Drosophila embryogenesis has provided much insight into our understanding of the relative importance of, and the interaction between, these two mechanisms in shaping the embryo.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Magrassi L, Lawrence PA (1988) The pattern of cell death in fushi tarazu, a segmentation gene of Drosophila. Development 104(3):447–451
Smouse D, Goodman C, Mahowald A, Perrimon N (1988) Polyhomeotic: a gene required for the embryonic development of axon pathways in the central nervous system of Drosophila. Genes Dev 2(7):830–842. doi:10.1101/gad.2.7.830
Abrams JM, White K, Fessler LI, Steller H (1993) Programmed cell death during Drosophila embryogenesis. Development 117(1):29–43
Pazdera TM, Janardhan P, Minden JS (1998) Patterned epidermal cell death in wild-type and segment polarity mutant Drosophila embryos. Development 125(17):3427–3436
White K, Grether ME, Abrams JM, Young L, Farrell K, Steller H (1994) Genetic control of programmed cell death in Drosophila. Science 264(5159):677–683. doi:10.1126/science.8171319
Grether ME, Abrams JM, Agapite J, White K, Steller H (1995) The head involution defective gene of Drosophila melanogaster functions in programmed cell death. Genes Dev 9:1694–1708. doi:10.1101/gad.9.14.1694
Chen P, Nordstrom W, Gish B, Abrams JM (1996) grim, a novel cell death gene in Drosophila. Genes Dev 10:1773–1782. doi:10.1101/gad.10.14.1773
Christich A, Kauppila S, Chen P, Sogame N, Ho SI, Abrams JM (2002) The damage-responsive Drosophila gene sickle encodes a novel IAP binding protein similar to but distinct from reaper, grim, and hid. Curr Biol 12(2):137–140. doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(01)00658-3
Srinivasula SM, Datta P, Kobayashi M, Wu JW, Fujioka M, Hegde R, Zhang Z, Mukattash R, Fernandes-Alnemri T, Shi Y, Jaynes JB, Alnemri ES (2002) Sickle, a novel Drosophila death gene in the reaper/hid/grim region, encodes an IAP-inhibitory protein. Curr Biol 12(2):125–130. doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(01)00657-1
Wing JP, Karres JS, Ogdahl JL, Zhou L, Schwartz LM, Nambu JR (2002) Drosophila sickle is a novel grim-reaper cell death activator. Curr Biol 12(2):131–135. doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(01)00664-9
Chandraratna D, Lawrence N, Welchman DP, Sanson B (2007) An in vivo model of apoptosis: linking cell behaviours and caspase substrates in embryos lacking DIAP1. J Cell Sci 120(Pt 15):2594–2608. doi:10.1242/jcs.03472
Goyal L, McCall K, Agapite J, Hartwieg E, Steller H (2000) Induction of apoptosis by Drosophila reaper, hid and grim through inhibition of IAP function. EMBO J 19(4):589–597. doi:10.1093/emboj/19.4.589
Wang SL, Hawkins CJ, Yoo SJ, Muller HA, Hay BA (1999) The Drosophila caspase inhibitor DIAP1 is essential for cell survival and is negatively regulated by HID. Cell 98(4):453–463. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81974-1
Quinn LM, Dorstyn L, Mills K, Colussi PA, Chen P, Coombe M, Abrams J, Kumar S, Richardson H (2000) An essential role for the caspase dronc in developmentally programmed cell death in Drosophila. J Biol Chem 275(51):40416–40424. doi:10.1074/jbc.M002935200
Xu D, Li Y, Arcaro M, Lackey M, Bergmann A (2005) The CARD-carrying caspase Dronc is essential for most, but not all, developmental cell death in Drosophila. Development 132(9):2125–2134. doi:10.1242/dev.01790
Xu D, Wang Y, Willecke R, Chen Z, Ding T, Bergmann A (2006) The effector caspases drICE and dcp-1 have partially overlapping functions in the apoptotic pathway in Drosophila. Cell Death Differ 13(10):1697–1706. doi:10.1038/sj.cdd.4401920
Zhou L, Song Z, Tittel J, Steller H (1999) HAC-1, a Drosophila homolog of APAF-1 and CED-4 functions in developmental and radiation-induced apoptosis. Mol Cell 4(5):745–755. doi:10.1016/S1097-2765(00)80385-8
Rodriguez A, Oliver H, Zou H, Chen P, Wang X, Abrams JM (1999) Dark is a Drosophila homologue of Apaf-1/CED-4 and functions in an evolutionarily conserved death pathway. Nat Cell Biol 1(5):272–279. doi:10.1038/12984
Kanuka H, Sawamoto K, Inohara N, Matsuno K, Okano H, Miura M (1999) Control of the cell death pathway by Dapaf-1, a Drosophila Apaf-1/CED-4-related caspase activator. Mol Cell 4(5):757–769. doi:10.1016/S1097-2765(00)80386-X
Sonnenfeld MJ, Jacobs JR (1995) Apoptosis of the midline glia during Drosophila embryogenesis: a correlation with axon contact. Development 121(2):569–578
Zhou L, Hashimi H, Schwartz LM, Nambu JR (1995) Programmed cell death in the Drosophila central nervous system midline. Curr Biol 5(7):784–790. doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(95)00155-2
Sonnenfeld MJ, Jacobs JR (1995) Macrophages and glia participate in the removal of apoptotic neurons from the Drosophila embryonic nervous system. J Comp Neurol 359(4):644–652. doi:10.1002/cne.903590410
Tepass U, Fessler LI, Aziz A, Hartenstein V (1994) Embryonic origin of hemocytes and their relationship to cell death in Drosophila. Development 120(7):1829–1837
Franc NC, Dimarcq JL, Lagueux M, Hoffmann J, Ezekowitz RA (1996) Croquemort, a novel Drosophila hemocyte/macrophage receptor that recognizes apoptotic cells. Immunity 4(5):431–443. doi:10.1016/S1074-7613(00)80410-0
Franc NC, Heitzler P, Ezekowitz RAB, White K (1999) Requirement for Croquemort in phagocytosis of apoptotic cells in Drosophila. Science 284(5422):1991–1994
Zhang Y, Lin N, Carroll P, Chan G, Guan B, Xiao H, Yao B, Wu S, Zhou L (2008) Epigenetic blocking of an enhancer region controls irradiation-induced proapoptotic gene expression in Drosophila embryos. Dev Cell 14:481–493. doi:10.1016/j.devcel.2008.01.018
Karcavich R, Doe CQ (2005) Drosophila neuroblast 7–3 cell lineage: a model system for studying programmed cell death, Notch/Numb signaling, and sequential specification of ganglion mother cell identity. J Comp Neurol 481(3):240–251. doi:10.1002/cne.20371
Rogulja-Ortmann A, Luer K, Seibert J, Rickert C, Technau GM (2007) Programmed cell death in the embryonic central nervous system of Drosophila melanogaster. Development 134(1):105–116. doi:10.1242/dev.02707
Bello BC, Hirth F, Gould AP (2003) A pulse of the Drosophila Hox protein abdominal-A schedules the end of neural proliferation via neuroblast apoptosis. Neuron 37(2):209–219. doi:10.1016/S0896-6273(02)01181-9
Maurange C, Cheng L, Gould AP (2008) Temporal transcription factors and their targets schedule the end of neural proliferation in Drosophila. Cell 133(5):891–902. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2008.03.034
Toyama Y, Peralta XG, Wells AR, Kiehart DP, Edwards GS (2008) Apoptotic force and tissue dynamics during Drosophila embryogenesis. Science 321(5896):1683–1686. doi:10.1126/science.1157052
Nusslein-Volhard C, Wieschaus E (1980) Mutations affecting segment number and polarity in Drosophila. Nature 287(5785):795–801. doi:10.1038/287795a0
Wolpert L (1994) Positional information and pattern formation in development. Dev Genet 15(6):485–490. doi:10.1002/dvg.1020150607
Ingham PW (1988) The molecular genetics of embryonic pattern formation in Drosophila. Nature 335(6185):25–34. doi:10.1038/335025a0
Lohmann I, McGinnis N, Bodmer M, McGinnis W (2002) The Drosophila Hox gene deformed sculpts head morphology via direct regulation of the apoptosis activator reaper. Cell 110(4):457–466. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(02)00871-1
Rogulja-Ortmann A, Renner S, Technau GM (2008) Antagonistic roles for Ultrabithorax and Antennapedia in regulating segment-specific apoptosis of differentiated motoneurons in the Drosophila embryonic central nervous system. Development 135(20):3435–3445
Raff MC (1992) Social controls on cell survival and cell death. Nature 356(6368):397–400
Barres BA, Schmid R, Sendnter M, Raff MC (1993) Multiple extracellular signals are required for long-term oligodendrocyte survival. Development 118(1):283–295
Raff MC, Barres BA, Burne JF, Coles HS, Ishizaki Y, Jacobson MD (1993) Programmed cell death and the control of cell survival: lessons from the nervous system. Science 262(5134):695–700. doi:10.1126/science.8235590
Clifford R, Schupbach T (1992) The torpedo (DER) receptor tyrosine kinase is required at multiple times during Drosophila embryogenesis. Development 115(3):853–872
Stemerdink C, Jacobs JR (1997) Argos and Spitz group genes function to regulate midline glial cell number in Drosophila embryos. Development 124(19):3787–3796
Jacobs JR (2000) The midline glia of Drosophila: a molecular genetic model for the developmental functions of glia. Prog Neurobiol 62(5):475–508. doi:10.1016/S0301-0082(00)00016-2
Bergmann A, Agapite J, McCall K, Steller H (1998) The Drosophila gene hid is a direct molecular target of Ras-dependent survival signaling. Cell 95(3):331–341. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81765-1
Kurada P, White K (1998) Ras promotes cell survival in Drosophila by downregulating hid expression. Cell 95(3):319–329. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81764-X
Bergmann A, Tugentman M, Shilo BZ, Steller H (2002) Regulation of cell number by MAPK-dependent control of apoptosis: a mechanism for trophic survival signaling. Dev Cell 2(2):159–170. doi:10.1016/S1534-5807(02)00116-8
Parker J (2006) Control of compartment size by an EGF ligand from neighboring cells. Curr Biol 16(20):2058–2065. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2006.08.092
Reuveny A, Elhanany H, Volk T (2009) Enhanced sensitivity of midline glial cells to apoptosis is achieved by HOW(L)-dependent repression of Diap1. Mech Dev 126(1–2):30–41. doi:10.1016/j.mod.2008.10.004
Zhou L, Schnitzler A, Agapite J, Schwartz LM, Steller H, Nambu JR (1997) Cooperative functions of the reaper and head involution defective genes in the programmed cell death of Drosophila central nervous system midline cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94(10):5131–5136. doi:10.1073/pnas.94.10.5131
Jiang C, Baehrecke EH, Thummel CS (1997) Steroid regulated programmed cell death during Drosophila metamorphosis. Development 124(22):4673–4683
Yin VP, Thummel CS (2004) A balance between the diap1 death inhibitor and reaper and hid death inducers controls steroid-triggered cell death in Drosophila. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101(21):8022–8027. doi:10.1073/pnas.0402647101
Peterson C, Carney GE, Taylor BJ, White K (2002) Reaper is required for neuroblast apoptosis during Drosophila development. Development 129(6):1467–1476
Wing JP, Schwartz LM, Nambu JR (2001) The RHG motifs of Drosophila Reaper and Grim are important for their distinct cell death-inducing abilities. Mech Dev 102(1–2):193–203. doi:10.1016/S0925-4773(01)00316-1
Zachariou A, Tenev T, Goyal L, Agapite J, Steller H, Meier P (2003) IAP-antagonists exhibit non-redundant modes of action through differential DIAP1 binding. EMBO J 22(24):6642–6652. doi:10.1093/emboj/cdg617
Claveria C, Caminero E, Martinez AC, Campuzano S, Torres M (2002) GH3, a novel proapoptotic domain in Drosophila Grim, promotes a mitochondrial death pathway. EMBO J 21(13):3327–3336. doi:10.1093/emboj/cdf354
Claveria C, Martinez AC, Torres M (2004) A Bax/Bak-independent mitochondrial death pathway triggered by Drosophila Grim GH3 domain in mammalian cells. J Biol Chem 279(2):1368–1375. doi:10.1074/jbc.M309819200
Freel CD, Richardson DA, Thomenius MJ, Gan EC, Horn SR, Olson MR, Kornbluth S (2008) Mitochondrial localization of Reaper to promote inhibitors of apoptosis protein degradation conferred by GH3 domain-lipid interactions. J Biol Chem 283(1):367–379. doi:10.1074/jbc.M708931200
Olson MR, Holley CL, Gan EC, Colon-Ramos DA, Kaplan B, Kornbluth S (2003) A GH3-like domain in reaper required for mitochondrial localization and induction of IAP degradation. J Biol Chem 13:13
Engstrom PG, Ho Sui SJ, Drivenes O, Becker TS, Lenhard B (2007) Genomic regulatory blocks underlie extensive microsynteny conservation in insects. Genome Res 17(12):1898–1908. doi:10.1101/gr.6669607
Kikuta H, Laplante M, Navratilova P, Komisarczuk AZ, Engstrom PG, Fredman D, Akalin A, Caccamo M, Sealy I, Howe K, Ghislain J, Pezeron G, Mourrain P, Ellingsen S, Oates AC, Thisse C, Thisse B, Foucher I, Adolf B, Geling A, Lenhard B, Becker TS (2007) Genomic regulatory blocks encompass multiple neighboring genes and maintain conserved synteny in vertebrates. Genome Res 17(5):545–555. doi:10.1101/gr.6086307
Acknowledgements
Our work is supported by NIH grants CA095542 and AI067555. The authors are grateful for the comments and suggestions provided by Dr. Bertrand Mollereau.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Lin, N., Zhang, C., Pang, J. et al. By design or by chance: cell death during Drosophila embryogenesis. Apoptosis 14, 935–942 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10495-009-0360-8
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10495-009-0360-8