Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Defining Attributes and Metrics of Effective Research Mentoring Relationships

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
AIDS and Behavior Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Despite evidence of mentoring’s importance in training researchers, studies to date have not yet determined which mentoring relationships have the most impact and what specific factors in those mentoring relationships contribute to key outcomes, such as the commitment to and persistence in research career paths for emerging researchers from diverse populations. Efforts to broaden participation and persistence in biomedical research careers require an understanding of why and how mentoring relationships work and their impact, not only to research training but also to promoting career advancement. This paper proposes core attributes of effective mentoring relationships, as supported by the literature and suggested by theoretical models of academic persistence. In addition, both existing and developing metrics for measuring the effectiveness of these attributes within mentoring relationships across diverse groups are presented, as well as preliminary data on these metrics from the authors’ work.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Bland C, Taylor A, Shollen S. Faculty success through mentoring: a guide for mentors, mentees, and leaders. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.; 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Cho C, Ramanan R, Feldman M. Defining the ideal qualities of mentorship: a qualitative analysis of the characteristics of outstanding mentors. Am J Med. 2011;124(5):453–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Feldman MD, Arean PA, Marshall SJ, Lovett M, O’Sullivan P. Does mentoring matter: results from a survey of faculty mentees at a large health sciences university. Med Educ Online. 2010;23:15.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Garman K, Wingard D, Reznik V. Development of Junior Faculty’s self-efficacy: outcomes of a National Center of Leadership in Academic Medicine. Acad Med J Assoc Am Med Coll. 2001;76(10):S74–6.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Palepu A, Friedman R, Barnett R. Junior faculty members’ mentoring relationships and their professional development in US medical schools. Acad Med J Assoc Am Med Coll. 1998;73(3):318–23.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Ragins B, Kram K. The handbook of mentoring at work: theory, research, and practice. Thousand Oaks: Thousand Oaks Press; 2007.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Ramanan R, Phillips R, Davis R. Mentoring in medicine: keys to satisfaction. Am J Med. 2002;112(4):336–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Sambunjak D, Straus SE, Marušić A. Mentoring in academic medicine. JAMA. 2006;296(9):1103–15.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Shea JA, Stern DT, Klotman PE, Clayton CP, O’Hara JL, Feldman MD, et al. Career development of physician scientists: a survey of leaders in academic medicine. Am J Med. 2011;124(8):779–87.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Steiner J, Curtis P, Lanphear B. Assessing the role of influential mentors in the research development of primary care fellows. Acad Med J Assoc Am Med Coll. 2004;79(9):865–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Fleming M, Burnham E, Huskins W. Mentoring translational science investigators. J Am Med Assoc. 2012;308(19):1981–2.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. McGee R, Keller JL. Identifying future scientists: predicting persistence into research training. CBE Life Sci Educ. 2007;6(4):316–31.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  13. Laursen S, Hunter A-B, Seymour E, Thiry H, Melton G. Undergraduate Research in the Sciences: Engaging Students in Real Science. New York: Wiley; 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  14. Gloria AM, Robinson Kurpius SE. Influences of self-beliefs, social support, and comfort in the university environment on the academic nonpersistence decisions of American Indian undergraduates. Cult Divers Ethn Minor Psychol. 2001;7(1):88–102.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Solorzano D. The road to the doctorate for california’s chicanas and chicanos: a Study of Ford Foundation Minority Fellows. Berkeley: California Policy Seminar; 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  16. Long-distance relationships. Nat Neurosci. Nature Publishing Group; 2007, 10(10):1223.

  17. Steiner J, Lanphear B. Indicators of early research productivity among primary care fellows. J Gen Intern Med. 2002;17(11):845–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Wingard D, Garman K, Reznik V. Facilitating faculty success: outcomes and cost benefit of the UCSD National Center of Leadership in Academic Medicine. Acad Med J Assoc Am Med Coll. 2004;70(10):S9–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Palepu A, Friedman R, Barnett R, Carr P. Medical faculty with mentors are more satisfied. J Gen Intern Med. 1996;11(4):107.

    Google Scholar 

  20. Schapira MM, Kalet A, Schwartz MD, Gerrity MS. Mentorship in General Internal Medicine: investment in our Future. J Gen Intern Med. 1992;7(2):248–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Beech BM, Calles-Escandon J, Hairston KG, Langdon SE, Latham-Sadler BA, Bell RA. Mentoring Programs for Underrepresented Minority Faculty in Academic Medical Centers. Acad Med J Assoc Am Med Coll. 2013;88(4):541–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Dolan E, Johnson D. Toward a holistic view of undergraduate research experiences: an exploratory study of impact on Graduate/Postdoctoral mentors. J Sci Educ Technol. 2009;18(6):487–500.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Hathaway RS, Nagda BA, Gregerman SR. The Relationship of Undergraduate Research Participation to Graduate and Professional Education Pursuit: an Empirical Study. J Coll Stud Dev. 2002;43(5):614–31.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Gregerman SR, Lerner JS, von Hippel W, Jonides J, Nagda BA. Undergraduate student-faculty research partnerships affect student retention. Rev High Educ. 1998;22(1):55–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Byars-Winston A, Branchaw J, Pfund C, Leverett P, Newton J. Culturally diverse undergraduate researchers’ academic outcomes and perceptions of their research mentoring relationships. Int J Sci Educ. 2015;37(15):2533–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Bland C, Seaquist E, Pacala J, Center B, Finstad D. One school’s strategy to assess and improve the vitality of its faculty. Acad Med J Assoc Am Med Coll. 2002;77(5):368–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Ries A, Wingard D, Morgan C, Farrell E, Letter S, Reznik V. Retention of junior faculty in academic medicine at the University of California, San Diego. Acad Med J Assoc Am Med Coll. 2009;84(1):37–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Daley S, Wingard D, Reznik V. Improving the retention of underrepresented minority faculty in academic medicine. J Natl Med Assoc. 2006;98(9):1435–40.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  29. Thomas D. The truth about mentoring minorities: race matters. Harv Bus Rev. 2001;74(5):98.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Helm E, Prieto D, Parker J, Russell M. Minority medical school faculty. J Natl Med Assoc. 2000;92(8):411–4.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  31. Morzinski J, Fisher J. A nationwide study of the influence of faculty development programs on colleague relationships. Acad Med J Assoc Am Med Coll. 2002;77(5):402–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Ginther DK, Schaffer WT, Schnell J, Masimore B, Liu F, Haak LL, et al. Race, ethnicity, and NIH research awards. Science. 2011;333(6045):1015–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  33. Csikszentmihalyi M. Forward. In: Nakamura J, Shernoff D, Hooker C, editors. Good mentoring: fostering excellent practice in higher education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass; 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  34. Pfund C, House S, Asquith P, Fleming MF, Buhr KA, et al. Training mentors of clinical and translational research scholars: a randomized controlled trial. Acad Med. 2014;89:774–82.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  35. Lee JM, Anzai Y, Langlotz CP. Mentoring the Mentors: aligning Mentor and Mentee Expectations. Acad Radiol. 2006;13(5):556–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Sciences NI of GM. Investing in the Future: Strategic Plan for Biomedical and Behavioral Research Training. 2011.

  37. Byars-Winston A, Leverett P, Owen A, Pfund C, Branchaw J, Benbow R. Mentee and mentor experiences of race/ethnicity and gender in biology research mentoring relationships. Unpublished submitted manuscript.

  38. Eby LT, Rhodes JE, Allen TD. Definition and evolution of mentoring. In: Allen TD, Eby LT, editors. The Blackwell handbook of mentoring: a multiple perspectives approach. Malden: Blackwell Publishing Inc.; 2007.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Muller CB, Blake-Beard S, Barsion S, Wotipka CM. Learning from the experiences of women of color in MentorNet’s one-on-one program. J Women Minor Sci Eng. 2012;18(4):317–38.

    Google Scholar 

  40. Prunuske AJ, Wilson J, Walls M, Clarke B. Experiences of mentors training underrepresented undergraduates in the research laboratory. CBE Life Sci Educ. 2013;12(3):403–9.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  41. Chang M, Eagan M, Lin MH, Hurtado S. Considering the impact of racial stigmas and science identity: persistence among biomedical and behavioral science aspirants. J High Eudc. 2011;82(5):564–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Hurtado S, Cabrera N, Lin M, Arellano L, Espinosa L. Diversifying science: underrepresented student experiences in structured research programs. Res High Educ. 2009;50(2):189–214.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  43. Carlone H, Johnson A. Understanding the science experiences of successful women of color: science identity as an analytic lens. J Res Sci Teach. 2007;44(8):1187–218.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Johnson A, Brown J, Carlone H, Cuevas AK. Authoring identity amidst the treacherous terrain of science: a multiracial feminist examination of the journeys of three women of color in science. J Res Sci Teach. 2011;48(4):339–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Sullivan P, Simmons M, Meloncon MK, Potts L. Intentionally recursive: a participatory model for mentoring. In: Proceedings of the 33rd annual international conference on the design of communication (p. 0), ACM (2015).

  46. Eby LT, Allen TD, Evans SC, Ng T, DuBois D. Does mentoring matter? A multidisciplinary meta-analysis comparing mentored and non-mentored individuals. J Vocat Behav. 2008;72(2):254–67.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  47. Byars-Winston A, Gutierrez B, Topp S, Carnes M. Integrating theory and practice to increase scientific workforce diversity: a framework for career development in graduate research training. CBE Life Sci Educ. 2011;10(4):357–67.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  48. Bearman S, Blake-Beard S, Hunt L, Crosby FJ. New directions in mentoring. The blackwell handbook of mentoring. A multiple perspectives approach. Malden: Blackwell Publishing; 2007.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Nora A, Crisp G. Mentoring Students: conceptualizing and validating the multi-dimensions of a support system. J Coll Stud Retent. 2007;9(3):337–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Tinto V. Leaving college: rethinking the causes and cures of student attrition. 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press; 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Manson SM. Personal journeys, professional paths: persistence in navigating the crossroads of a research career. Am J Public Health. 2009;99(1):S20–5.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  52. Seymour E, Hunter A, Laursen S, DeAntoni T. Establishing the benefits of undergraduate researchers into a scientific community of practice. J Sci Educ Technol. 2011;20(6):771–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Chemers M, Zurbriggen E, Syed M, Goza B, Bearman S. The role of efficacy and identity in science career commitment among underrepresented minority students. J Soc Issues. 2011;67(3):469–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Yosso T. Whose culture has capital? A critical race theory discussion of community cultural wealth. Race Ethn Educ. 2005;8(1):69–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Lent R, Brown S, Hackett G. Toward a unifying social cognitive theory of career and academic interest, choice, and performance. J Vocat Behav Behav. 1994;45:79–122.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Bakken L, Byars-Winston A, Gundermann D, Ward E, Slattery A, King A, et al. Effects of an Educational Intervention on Female Biomedical Scientists’ Research Self-Efficacy. Adv Heal Sci Educ. 2010;15(2):167–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Byars-Winston A, Estrada Y, Howard C, Davis D, Zalapa J. Influence of social cognitive and ethnic variables on academic goals of underrepresented students in science and engineering: a multiple-groups analysis. J Couns Psychol. 2010;57(2):205–18.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  58. Lent RW, Brown SD, Sheu H-B, Schmidt J, Brenner BR, Gloster CS, et al. Social cognitive predictors of academic interests and goals in engineering: utility for women and students at historically black Universities. J Counsel Psychol. 2005;52(1):84–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Gainor KA, Lent RW. Social cognitive expectations and racial identity attitudes in predicting the math choice intentions of Black college students. J Couns Psychol. 1998;45(4):403–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Williams MM, George-Jackson CE. Using and doing science: gender self-efficacy, and science identity of undergraduate students in STEM. J Women Minor Sci Eng. 2014;20(2):99–126.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Fiske A, Kitayama S, Markus H, Nisbett R. The cultural matrix of social psychology. In: Gilbert G, Fiske S, Lindzey G, editors. The handbook of social psychology. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw Hill; 1998. p. 915–81.

    Google Scholar 

  62. Hunter A, Laursen S, Seymour E. Becoming a scientist: the role of undergraduate research in students’ cognitive, personal, and professional development. Sci Educ. 2007;91(1):36–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Estrada M, Woodcock A, Hernandez P, Schultz P. Toward a model of social influence that explains minority student integration into the scientific community. J Educ Psychol. 2011;130:206–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Tran M. How can students be scientists and still be themselves: Understanding the intersectionality of science identity and multiple social identities through graduate. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California at Los Angeles; 2011.

  65. Bourdieu P. The Forms of Capital. In: Richardson J, editor. Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education. New York: Greenwood Press; 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  66. Bourdieu P, Passeron J. Reproduction in education, culture and society. London: Sage Publications; 1977.

    Google Scholar 

  67. Becher T, Trowler P. Academic tribes and territories: intellectual enquiry and the culture of disciplines. New York: McGraw-Hill Education; 2001.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Zambrana R, Ray R, Espino M, Castro C, Cohen B, Eliason J. “Don’t Leave Us Behind” the importance of mentoring for underrepresented minority faculty. Am Educ Res J. 2015;52(1):40–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  69. Bokeno RM, Gantt VW. Dialogic mentoring core relationships for organizational learning. Manag Commun Q. 2000;14(2):237–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Griffin K. Black professors managing mentorship: implications of applying social exchange frameworks to analyses of student interactions and their influence on scholarly. Teach Coll Rec. 2012;114(5):1–37.

    Google Scholar 

  71. Beasley MA. Opting out: losing the potential of america’s young black elite. Chicago: University of Chicago Press; 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  72. Abedin Z, Biskup E, Silet K, Garbutt JM, Kroenke K, Feldman MD, et al. Deriving Competencies for Mentors of Clinical and Translational Scholars. Clin Transl Sci. 2012;5(3):273–80.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  73. Pfund C, Maidl Pribbenow C, Branchaw J, Miller Laufer S, Handelsman J. Professional skills: the merits of training mentors. Science. 2006;311:473–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Meagher E, Taylor L, Probsfield J, Fleming M. Evaluating research mentors working in the area of clinical translational science: a review of the literature. Cli Transl Sci. 2011;4(5):353–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  75. Fleming M, House S, Shewakramani V, Yu L, Garbutt J, McGee R, et al. The mentoring competency assessment: validation of a new instrument to evaluate skills of research mentors. Acad Med. 2013;88(7):1002–8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  76. Weston T, Laursen S. The undergraduate research student self-assessment (URSSA): validation for use in program evaluation. CBE Life Sci Educ. 2015;14(3):ar33.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  77. Lopatto D. Survey of undergraduate research experiences (SURE): first findings. Cell Biol Educ. 2004;3(4):270–7.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  78. Eagan M, Hurtado S, Chang M, Garcia G, Herrera F, Garibay J. Making a difference in science education the impact of undergraduate research programs. Am Educ Res J. 2013;50(4):683–713.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  79. Chang MJ, Sharkness J, Hurtado S, Newman CB. What matters in college for retaining aspiring scientists and engineers from underrepresented racial groups. J Res Sci Teach. 2014;51(5):555–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  80. Bieschke KJ, Bishop RM, Garcia VL. The utility of the research self-efficacy scale. J Career Assess. 1996;4(1):59–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  81. LaFromboise TD, Coleman HL, Hernandez A. Development and factor structure of the cross-cultural counseling inventory—revised. Prof Psychol. 1991;22(5):380–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  82. Boulder University of Colorado. URSSA, undergraduate student self-assessment, ethnography & evaluation research. 2009. www.salgsite.org.

  83. Handelsman J, Handelsman H. Entering mentoring: a seminar to train a new generation of scientists. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press; 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  84. Rose GL. Enhancement of mentor selection using the ideal mentor scale. Res High Educ. 2003;44(4):473–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  85. Bieschke K. Research self-efficacy beliefs and research outcome expectations: implications for developing scientifically minded psychologists. J Career Assess. 2006;14:77–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  86. Allen T, Shockley K, Poteat L. Protégé anxiety attachment and feedback in mentoring relationships. J Vocat Behav. 2010;77(1):73–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  87. Day R, Allen TD. The relationship between career motivation and self-efficacy with protégé career success. J Vocat Behav. 2004;64(1):72–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  88. Hurtado S, Han JC, Sáenz VB, Espinosa LL, Cabrera NL, Cerna OS. Predicting transition and adjustment to college: biomedical and behavioral science aspirants’ and minority students’ first year of college. Res High Educ. 2007;48(7):841–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  89. Greenwald AG, McGhee DE, Schwartz JLK. Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: the implicit association test. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1998;74(6):1464–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Roberson L, Deitch EA, Brief AP, Block CJ. Stereotype threat and feedback seeking in the workplace. J Vocat Behav. 2003;62(1):176–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  91. Steele C, Aronson J. Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1995;69:797–811.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Picho K, Brown S. Can stereotype threat be measured? A validation of the social identities and attitudes scale (SIAS). J Adv Acad. 2011;74(6):1464–80.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We thank other members of the National Research Mentoring Network (NRMN) Mentor Training Core (Stephanie House, Richard McGee, Sandra Quinn, Jenna Rodgers, Christine Sorkness, Kimberly Spencer, Stephen Thomas, Anne-Marie Weber-Main) for contributions that led to conceptualization of this article in preparation of NRMN grant proposal and their previous work. Specifically, we thank, AMWM and RM for work on definition of mentoring as well as RM and SQ for work on the conceptual frameworks. We thank SH, KS and JR for their feedback and Matt Holtz for work on the references. This works was supported CP, ABW, JB through the National Research Mentoring Network (NRMN) NIH U54MD009479/NIGMS, U54GM119023, and NIGMS R01GM094573 and SH and KE through the Coordinating and Evaluation Center NIH U54MD009508/NIGMS, U54GM119024, and R01GM071968. Research reported in this manuscript was supported in part by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Common Fund, through the Office of Strategic Coordination/Office of the NIH Director; all of the NIH Institutes and Centers; and the Office of Research Infrastructure Programs/Office of the NIH Director under award numbers U54GM119023, and U54GM119024. Research was also supported by R01GM094573, and R01GM071968. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Mentor Training Core, National Research Mentoring Network, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA

    Christine Pfund & Janet Branchaw

  2. Institute for Clinical and Translational Research, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA

    Christine Pfund

  3. Wisconsin Center for Education Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA

    Christine Pfund

  4. Department of Medicine, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA

    Angela Byars-Winston

  5. Center for Women’s Health Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA

    Angela Byars-Winston

  6. Department of Kinesiology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA

    Janet Branchaw

  7. Wisconsin Institute for Science Education and Community Engagement (WISCIENCE), University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA

    Janet Branchaw

  8. Graduate School of Education and Information Studies, University of California-Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA

    Sylvia Hurtado & Kevin Eagan

  9. Cooperative Institutional Research Program, University of California- Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA

    Kevin Eagan

Authors
  1. Christine Pfund
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Angela Byars-Winston
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Janet Branchaw
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Sylvia Hurtado
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Kevin Eagan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Christine Pfund.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Pfund, C., Byars-Winston, A., Branchaw, J. et al. Defining Attributes and Metrics of Effective Research Mentoring Relationships. AIDS Behav 20 (Suppl 2), 238–248 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-016-1384-z

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-016-1384-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation