Abstract
Biomaterials appear promising for creating wearable and electronic devices. For instance, natural silk is flexible, durable, comfortable, breathable and abundant. Silk can take many forms and adapt to the sought-out qualities of wearable devices. For sensor fabrication, silk’s amphophilic structure allows the facile adhesion of active materials. Moreover, substrates made of β-sheet crystallites offer outstanding mechanical strength. Here, we review synthesis and applications of modified silk in energy and sensing. The three ways to modify silk are: before the fiber is spun by the worm, i.e. in-vivo, after it is spun, and by pyrolysis. Methods include electrospinning and hydrogel formation. The produced biocompatible materials can be integrated in supercapacitors, batteries, solar cells, water splitting materials, and sensors.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ahmed N, Ali BA, Ramadan M, Allam NK (2019) Three-dimensional interconnected binder-free Mn–Ni–S nanosheets for high performance asymmetric supercapacitor devices with exceptional cyclic stability. ACS Appl Energy Mater 2:3717–3725. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaem.9b00435
Ahmed N, Amer A, Ali BA, Biby AH, Mesbah YI, Allam NK (2020) Boosting the cyclic stability and supercapacitive performance of graphene hydrogels via excessive nitrogen doping: experimental and DFT insights. Sustain Mater Technol 25:e00206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.susmat.2020.e00206
Ali BA, Allam NK (2019) Silkworms as a factory of functional wearable energy storage fabrics. Sci Rep 9:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-49193-y
Ali BA, Metwalli OI, Khalil ASG, Allam NK (2018) Unveiling the effect of the structure of carbon material on the charge storage mechanism in MoS2-based supercapacitors. ACS Omega 3:16301–16308. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.8b02261
Allam NK, Yen CW, Near RD, El-Sayed MA (2011) Bacteriorhodopsin/TiO2 nanotube arrays hybrid system for enhanced photoelectrochemical water splitting. Energy Environ Sci 4:2909–2914. https://doi.org/10.1039/C1EE01447A
Allen MJ, Tung VC, Kaner RB (2010) Honeycomb carbon: a review of graphene. Chem Rev 110:132–145. https://doi.org/10.1021/cr900070d
Boro B, Kumar Kakati B, Mushrifa Zahan S, Verma V (2019) In-situ synthesis and characterization of metal free heteroatom doped graphene based oxygen reduction reaction catalyst from pyrolysed Assam silk cocoons. In: IOP conference series: earth and environmental science. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/268/1/012040
Cai L, Shao H, Hu X, Zhang Y (2015) Reinforced and ultraviolet resistant silks from silkworms fed with titanium dioxide nanoparticles. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 3:2551–2557. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.5b00749
Campbell FL (1932) Preliminary experiments on the toxicity of certain coal-tar dyes for the silkworm. J Econ Entomol 25:905–917. https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/25.4.905
Cavallini S, Toffanin S, Chieco C et al (2015) Naturally functionalized silk as useful material for photonic applications. Compos Part B Eng 71:152–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2014.11.012
Chang H, Zou Y, Hu R et al (2020) Membrane applications for microbial energy conversion: a review. Environ Chem Lett 18:1581–1592. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-020-01032-7
Chen C, Ran R, Yang Z et al (2018) An efficient flexible electrochemical glucose sensor based on carbon nanotubes/carbonized silk fabrics decorated with Pt microspheres. Sens Actuators B Chem 256:63–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2017.10.067
Chen M, Wang S, Zhang H et al (2020) Intrinsic defects in biomass-derived carbons facilitate electroreduction of CO2. Nano Res 13:729–735. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12274-020-2683-2
Cheng Y, Koh LD, Li D et al (2014) On the strength of β-sheet crystallites of Bombyx mori silk fibroin. J R Soc Interface. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2014.0305
Cheng L, Huang H, Chen S et al (2017) Characterization of silkworm larvae growth and properties of silk fibres after direct feeding of copper or silver nanoparticles. Mater Des 129:125–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2017.04.096
Cheng L, Zhao H, Huang H et al (2019) Quantum dots-reinforced luminescent silkworm silk with superior mechanical properties and highly stable fluorescence. J Mater Sci. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-019-03469-w
Choi SH, Kim SW, Ku Z et al (2018) Anderson light localization in biological nanostructures of native silk. Nat Commun 9:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-017-02500-5
Diao YY, Liu XY, Toh GW et al (2013) Multiple structural coloring of silk-fibroin photonic crystals and humidity-responsive color sensing. Adv Funct Mater 23:5373–5380. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201203672
Dong L, Xu C, Li Y et al (2016) Flexible electrodes and supercapacitors for wearable energy storage: a review by category. J Mater Chem A 4:4659–4685. https://doi.org/10.1039/c5ta10582j
Dudem B, Dharmasena RDIG, Graham SA et al (2020) Exploring the theoretical and experimental optimization of high-performance triboelectric nanogenerators using microarchitectured silk cocoon films. Nano Energy 74:104882. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2020.104882
El-Nahas AM, Salaheldin TA, Zaki T, El-Maghrabi HH, Marie AM, Morsy SM, Allam NK (2017) Functionalized cellulose-magnetite nanocomposite catalysts for efficient biodiesel production. Chem Eng J 322:167–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2017.04.031
Fan FR, Lin L, Zhu G et al (2012) Transparent triboelectric nanogenerators and self-powered pressure sensors based on micropatterned plastic films. Nano Lett 12:3109–3114. https://doi.org/10.1021/nl300988z
Fei X, Jia M, Du X et al (2013a) Green synthesis of silk fibroin-silver nanoparticle composites with effective antibacterial and biofilm-disrupting properties. Biomacromol 14:4483–4488. https://doi.org/10.1021/bm4014149
Fei X, Shao Z, Chen X (2013b) Synthesis of hierarchical three-dimensional copper oxide nanostructures through a biomineralization-inspired approach. Nanoscale 5:7991–7997. https://doi.org/10.1039/c3nr01872e
Fiedler B, Schulte K (2017) Carbon nanotube-based composites. In: Beaumont PW et al (eds) Comprehensive composite materials II. Elsevier, Amsterdam
Frackowiak E, Béguin F (2001) Carbon materials for the electrochemical storage of energy in capacitors. Carbon N Y 39:937–950. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-6223(00)00183-4
Gao K, Zhao S, Niu Q, Wang L (2019a) 2D nitrogen-doped porous carbon nanosheets derived from cellulose nanofiber/silk fibroin nanohybrid cellular monoliths with promising capacitive performance. Cellulose 26:9241–9254. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-019-02723-3
Gao W, Ota H, Kiriya D et al (2019b) Flexible electronics toward wearable sensing. Acc Chem Res 52:523–533. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.accounts.8b00500
Gulrajani ML, Gupta D, Periyasamy S, Muthu SG (2008) Preparation and application of silver nanoparticles on silk for imparting antimicrobial properties. J Appl Polym Sci 108:614–623. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.27584
Guo CX, Guai GH, Li CM (2011) Graphene based materials: enhancing solar energy harvesting. Adv Energy Mater 1:448–452. https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201100119
Hakimi O, Knight DP, Vollrath F, Vadgama P (2007) Spider and mulberry silkworm silks as compatible biomaterials. Compos Part B Eng 38:324–337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2006.06.012
He F, You X, Gong H et al (2020) Stretchable, biocompatible, and multifunctional silk fibroin-based hydrogels toward wearable strain/pressure sensors and triboelectric nanogenerators. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 12:6442–6450. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.9b19721
Holland C, Numata K, Rnjak-kovacina J, Seib FP (2019a) The biomedical use of silk: past, present. Future Adv Healthc Mater 1800465:26. https://doi.org/10.1002/adhm.201800465
Holland C, Numata K, Rnjak-Kovacina J, Seib FP (2019b) The biomedical use of silk: past, present. Future Adv Healthc Mater. https://doi.org/10.1002/adhm.201800465
Hou J, Cao C, Idrees F, Ma X (2015) Hierarchical porous nitrogen-doped carbon nanosheets derived from silk for ultrahigh-capacity battery anodes and supercapacitors. ACS Nano 9:2556–2564. https://doi.org/10.1021/nn506394r
Hu R, Cola BA, Haram N et al (2010) Harvesting waste thermal energy using a carbon-nanotube-based thermo-electrochemical cell. Nano Lett 10:838–846. https://doi.org/10.1021/nl903267n
Hu M, Hu T, Cheng R et al (2018) MXene-coated silk-derived carbon cloth toward flexible electrode for supercapacitor application. J Energy Chem 27:161–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jechem.2017.10.030
Huebsch N, Mooney DJ (2009) Inspiration and application in the evolution of biomaterials. Nature 462:426–432. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature08601
Jangir H, Pandey M, Jha R et al (2018) Sequential entrapping of Li and S in a conductivity cage of N-doped reduced graphene oxide supercapacitor derived from silk cocoon: a hybrid Li–S-silk supercapacitor. Appl Nanosci 8:379–393. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13204-018-0641-z
Ji JY, Kang CM, Li K et al (2014) Comparison of structures of luminescent silkworm silk prepared by feeding and dyeing. Mater Res Innov 18:S4817–S4820. https://doi.org/10.1179/1432891714Z.000000000787
Jia M, Mao C, Niu Y et al (2015) A selenium-confined porous carbon cathode from silk cocoons for Li–Se battery applications. RSC Adv 5:96146–96150. https://doi.org/10.1039/c5ra19000b
Jia X, Wang C, Ranganathan V et al (2017) A Biodegradable thin-film magnesium primary battery using silk fibroin-ionic liquid polymer electrolyte. ACS Energy Lett 2:831–836. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.7b00012
Jiang C, Wu C, Li X et al (2019) All-electrospun flexible triboelectric nanogenerator based on metallic MXene nanosheets. Nano Energy 59:268–276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2019.02.052
Jung WT, Jeon JW, Jang HS et al (2020) Commercial silk-based electronic textiles for NO2 sensing. Sens Actuators B Chem 307:127596. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2019.127596
Kaiser MR, Han Z, Liang J et al (2019) Lithium sulfide-based cathode for lithium-ion/sulfur battery: recent progress and challenges. Energy Storage Mater 19:1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2019.04.001
Kang P-D, Kim M-J, Jung I-Y et al (2011) Production of colored cocoons by feeding dye-added artificial diet. Int J Ind Entomol 22:21–23. https://doi.org/10.7852/ijie.2011.22.1.21
Kaur J, Rajkhowa R, Tsuzuki T et al (2013) Photoprotection by silk cocoons. Biomacromol 14:3660–3667. https://doi.org/10.1021/bm401023h
Khalid A, Peng L, Arman A et al (2020) Silk: a bio-derived coating for optical fiber sensing applications. Sens Actuators B Chem 311:127864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2020.127864
Kim SH, Nam YS, Lee TS, Park WH (2003) Silk fibroin nanofiber. Electrospinning, properties, and structure. Polym J 35:185–190. https://doi.org/10.1295/polymj.35.185
Kim YJ, Abe Y, Yanagiura T et al (2007) Easy preparation of nitrogen-enriched carbon materials from peptides of silk fibroins and their use to produce a high volumetric energy density in supercapacitors. Carbon N Y 45:2116–2125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbon.2007.05.026
Kim TS, Lee GH, Lee S et al (2017) Carbon-decorated iron oxide hollow granules formed using a silk fibrous template: lithium-oxygen battery and wastewater treatment applications. NPG Asia Mater 9:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/am.2017.202
Kim TS, Song HJ, Kim JC et al (2018) 3D Architectures of CoxP using silk fibroin scaffolds: an active and stable electrocatalyst for hydrogen generation in acidic and alkaline media. Small 14:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.201801284
Ko NR, Nafiujjaman M, Cherukula K et al (2018) Microwave-assisted synthesis of biocompatible silk fibroin-based carbon quantum dots. Part Part Syst Charact 35:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1002/ppsc.201700300
Kunz RI, Brancalhão RMC, Ribeiro LDFC, Natali MRM (2016) Silkworm sericin: properties and biomedical applications. Biomed Res Int 2016:8175701. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/8175701
Kusurkar TS, Tandon I, Sethy NK et al (2013) Fluorescent silk cocoon creating fluorescent diatom using a “water glass-Fluorophore ferry.” Sci Rep 3:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep03290
Lamari Darkrim F, Malbrunot P, Tartaglia GP (2002) Review of hydrogen storage by adsorption in carbon nanotubes. Int J Hydrog Energy 27:193–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0360-3199(01)00103-3
Li K, Zhao J, Zhang J et al (2015a) Direct in vivo functionalizing silkworm fibroin via molecular recognition. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 1:494–503. https://doi.org/10.1021/ab5001468
Li T, Li Y, Wang C et al (2015b) Nitrogen-doped carbon nanospheres derived from cocoon silk as metal-free electrocatalyst for glucose sensing. Talanta 144:1245–1251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2015.08.005
Li Q, Qi N, Peng Y et al (2017) Sub-micron silk fibroin film with high humidity sensibility through color changing. RSC Adv 7:17889–17897. https://doi.org/10.1039/c6ra28460d
Li X, Zhao J, Cai Z, Ge F (2018) A dyeing-induced heteroatom-co-doped route toward flexible carbon electrode derived from silk fabric. J Mater Sci 53:7735–7743. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-018-2100-3
Li X, Sun C, Cai Z, Ge F (2019) High-performance all-solid-state supercapacitor derived from PPy coated carbonized silk fabric. Appl Surf Sci 473:967–975. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2018.12.244
Liu J, Zhang X, Pang H et al (2012) Biosensors and bioelectronics high-performance bioanode based on the composite of CNTs-immobilized mediator and silk film-immobilized glucose oxidase for glucose/O2 biofuel cells. Biosens Bioelectron 31:170–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2011.10.011
Liu R, Pan L, Jiang J et al (2016a) Nitrogen-doped carbon microfiber with wrinkled surface for high performance supercapacitors. Sci Rep 6:1–7. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep21750
Liu X, Zhang M, Yu D et al (2016b) Functional materials from nature: honeycomb-like carbon nanosheets derived from silk cocoon as excellent electrocatalysts for hydrogen evolution reaction. Electrochim Acta 215:223–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2016.08.091
Liu C, Li J, Che L et al (2017) Toward large-scale fabrication of triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) with silk-fibroin patches film via spray-coating process. Nano Energy 41:359–366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2017.09.038
Liu Z, Li G, Zheng Z et al (2018) Silk fibroin-based woven endovascular prosthesis with heparin surface modification. J Mater Sci Mater Med 29:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10856-018-6055-3
Liu X, Liu J, Wang J et al (2020a) Bioinspired, microstructured silk fibroin adhesives for flexible skin sensors. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 12:5601–5609. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.9b21197
Liu Z, Shang S, Chiu K-l et al (2020b) Fabrication of silk fibroin/poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)/graphene oxide microfiber mat via electrospinning for protective fabric. Mater Sci Eng C 107:110308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2019.110308
Lu Z, Xiao J, Wang Y, Meng M (2015) In situ synthesis of silver nanoparticles uniformly distributed on polydopamine-coated silk fibers for antibacterial application. J Colloid Interface Sci 452:8–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2015.04.015
Lund A, Darabi S, Hultmark S et al (2018) Roll-to-roll dyed conducting silk yarns: a versatile material for E-textile devices. Adv Mater Technol 3:1800251. https://doi.org/10.1002/admt.201800251
Ma DL, Ma Y, Chen ZW, Hu AM (2017) A silk fabric derived carbon fibre net for transparent capacitive touch pads and all-solid supercapacitors. J Mater Chem A 5:20608–20614. https://doi.org/10.1039/c7ta05383e
Ma L, Andoh V, Liu H et al (2019) Biological effects of gold nanoclusters are evaluated by using silkworm as a model animal. J Mater Sci 54:4997–5007. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-018-03213-w
Mane P, Chaudhari R, Qureshi N et al (2019) Silver nanoparticles-silk fibroin nanocomposite based colorimetric bio-interfacial sensor for on-site ultra-trace impurity detection of mercury ions. J Nanosci Nanotechnol 20:2122–2129. https://doi.org/10.1166/jnn.2020.17335
Mannsfeld SCB, Tee BCK, Stoltenberg RM et al (2010) Highly sensitive flexible pressure sensors with microstructured rubber dielectric layers. Nat Mater 9:859–864. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmat2834
Marsh H, Rodríguez-Reinoso F (2006) Production and reference material. In: Marsh H, Reinoso FR (eds) Activated carbon. Elsevier, Amsterdam
Melucci M, Durso M, Favaretto L et al (2012) Silk doped with a bio-modified dye as a viable platform for eco-friendly luminescent solar concentrators. RSC Adv 2:8610–8613. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2ra21568c
Mishra RK, Mishra P, Verma K et al (2019) Electrospinning production of nanofibrous membranes. Springer, Berlin. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-018-00838-w
Mohamed N, Allam NK (2020) Recent advances in the design of cathode materials for Li-ion batteries. RSC Adv 10:21662–21685. https://doi.org/10.1039/D0RA03314F
Najjar R, Luo Y, Jao D et al (2017) Biocompatible silk/polymer energy harvesters using stretched poly (vinylidene fluoride-cohexafluoropropylene) (PVDF-HFP) Nanofibers. Polymers (Basel). https://doi.org/10.3390/polym9100479
Nambajjwe C, Musinguzi WB, Rwahwire S et al (2020) Improving electricity from silk cocoons through feeding silkworms with silver nanoparticles. Mater Today Proc. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.01.518
Nisal A, Trivedy K, Mohammad H et al (2014) Uptake of azo dyes into silk glands for production of colored silk cocoons using a green feeding approach. ACS Sustain Chem Eng 2:312–317. https://doi.org/10.1021/sc400355k
Niu Q, Huang L, Lv S et al (2020) Pulse-driven bio-triboelectric nanogenerator based on silk nanoribbons. Nano Energy 74:104837. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2020.104837
Pang C, Lee C, Suh KY (2013) Recent advances in flexible sensors for wearable and implantable devices. J Appl Polym Sci 130:1429–1441. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.39461
Pereira RFP, Brito-Pereira R, Gonçalves R et al (2018) Silk fibroin separators: a step toward lithium-ion batteries with enhanced sustainability. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 10:5385–5394. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.7b13802
Potiyaraj P, Kumlangdudsana P, Dubas ST (2007) Synthesis of silver chloride nanocrystal on silk fibers. Mater Lett 61:2464–2466. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2006.09.039
Reizabal A, Gonçalves R, Fidalgo-marijuan A et al (2020) Tailoring silk fibroin separator membranes pore size for improving performance of lithium ion batteries. J Membr Sci. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2019.117678
Sahu V, Grover S, Tulachan B et al (2015) Heavily nitrogen doped, graphene supercapacitor from silk cocoon. Electrochim Acta 160:244–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2015.02.019
Sayed DM, El-Deab MS, Elshakre ME, Allam NK (2020) Nanocrystalline cellulose confined in amorphous carbon fibers as capacitor material for efficient energy storage. J Phys Chem C 124:7007–7015. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcc.9b12045
Sencadas V (2020) Influence of the stabilization process on the piezotronic performance of electrospun silk fibroin. Macromol Mater Eng 305:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1002/mame.202000165
Sheng J, Zeng X, Zhu Q et al (2017) Facile fabrication of CNT-based chemical sensor operating at room temperature. Mater Res Express. https://doi.org/10.1088/2053-1591/aa9ac7
Shi Y, Li Z, Shi J et al (2018) Titanium dioxide-polyaniline/silk fibroin microfiber sensor for pork freshness evaluation. Sens Actuators B Chem 260:465–474. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2018.01.078
Shimanovich U, Pinotsi D, Shimanovich K et al (2018) Biophotonics of native silk fibrils. Macromol Biosci. https://doi.org/10.1002/mabi.201700295
Song Z, Lu X, Hu Q et al (2019) Synergistic confining polysulfides by rational design a N/P co-doped carbon as sulfur host and functional interlayer for high-performance lithium–sulfur batteries. J Power Sources 421:23–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2019.03.003
Su M, Kim B (2020) Silk fibroin-carbon nanotube composites based fiber substrated wearable triboelectric nanogenerator. ACS Appl Nano Mater 3:9759–9770. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsanm.0c01854
Sudhakar V, Das C, Krishnamoorthy K (2018) Silk cocoon as counter—electrode substrate in dye—sensitized solar cells. ChemistrySelect 3:7195–7199. https://doi.org/10.1002/slct.201800856
Tan X, Wang Y, Du W, Mu T (2020) Top-down extraction of silk protein nanofibers by natural deep eutectic solvents and application in dispersion of multiwalled carbon nanotubes for wearable sensing. Chemsuschem 13:321–327. https://doi.org/10.1002/cssc.201902979
Tansil NC, Li Y, Koh LD et al (2011a) The use of molecular fluorescent markers to monitor absorption and distribution of xenobiotics in a silkworm model. Biomaterials 32:9576–9583. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2011.08.081
Tansil NC, Li Y, Teng CP et al (2011b) Intrinsically colored and luminescent silk. Adv Mater 23:1463–1466. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201003860
Tansil NC, Koh LD, Han MY (2012) Functional silk: colored and luminescent. Adv Mater 24:1388–1397. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201104118
Tao H, Brenckle MA, Yang M et al (2012a) Silk-based conformal, adhesive, edible food sensors. Adv Mater 24:1067–1072. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201103814
Tao H, Kaplan DL, Omenetto FG (2012b) Silk materials—a road to sustainable high technology. Adv Mater 24:2824–2837. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201104477
Tao H, Kaplan DL, Omenetto FG (2012c) Silk materials—a road to sustainable high technology. Adv Mater 24:2824–2837. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201104477
Tran PA, Zhang L, Webster TJ (2009) Carbon nanofibers and carbon nanotubes in regenerative medicine. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 61:1097–1114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addr.2009.07.010
Tulachan B, Srivastava S, Kusurkar TS et al (2016) The role of photo-electric properties of silk cocoon membrane in pupal metamorphosis: a natural solar cell. Sci Rep 6:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep21915
Ude AU, Eshkoor RA, Zulkifili R et al (2014) Bombyx mori silk fibre and its composite: a review of contemporary developments. Mater Des 57:298–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2013.12.052
Upadhyayula VKK, Deng S, Mitchell MC, Smith GB (2009) Application of carbon nanotube technology for removal of contaminants in drinking water: a review. Sci Total Environ 408:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.09.027
Wang J (2005) Carbon-nanotube based electrochemical biosensors: a review. Electroanalysis 17:7–14. https://doi.org/10.1002/elan.200403113
Wang ZL (2013) Triboelectric nanogenerators as new energy technology for self-powered systems and as active mechanical and chemical sensors. ACS Nano 7:9533–9557. https://doi.org/10.1021/nn404614z
Wang J, Li L, Zhang MM et al (2014) Directly obtaining high strength silk fiber from silkworm by feeding carbon nanotubes. Mater Sec Eng 34:224–232. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-014-9986-7
Wang Y, Song Y, Wang Y et al (2015) Graphene/silk fibroin based carbon nanocomposites for high performance supercapacitors. J Mater Chem A 3:773–781. https://doi.org/10.1039/c4ta04772a
Wang ZL, Lin L, Chen J, Niu S, Zi Y (2016a) Triboelectric Nanogenerators. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-40039-6
Wang C, Li X, Gao E et al (2016b) Carbonized silk fabric for ultrastretchable, highly sensitive, and wearable strain sensors. Adv Mater 28:6640–6648. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201601572
Wang M, Bai L, Zhang L et al (2016c) A microporous silk carbon-ionic liquid composite for the electrochemical sensing of dopamine. Analyst 141:2447–2453. https://doi.org/10.1039/c6an00016a
Wang Q, Wang C, Zhang M et al (2016d) Feeding single-walled carbon nanotubes or graphene to silkworms for reinforced silk fibers. Nano Lett 16:6695–6700. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.nanolett.6b03597
Wang YYY, Song Y, Wang YYY et al (2017) A silk fabric derived carbon fibre net for transparent capacitive touch pads and all-solid supercapacitors. J Mater Chem A 9:773–781. https://doi.org/10.1039/c7ta05383e
Wang W, Yu A, Liu X et al (2020) Large-scale fabrication of robust textile triboelectric nanogenerators. Nano Energy 71:104605. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2020.104605
Wen DL, Liu X, Deng HT et al (2019) Printed silk-fibroin-based triboelectric nanogenerators for multi-functional wearable sensing. Nano Energy 66:104123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2019.104123
Wu ZL, Zhang P, Gao MX et al (2013) One-pot hydrothermal synthesis of highly luminescent nitrogen-doped amphoteric carbon dots for bioimaging from Bombyx mori silk-natural proteins. J Mater Chem. https://doi.org/10.1039/c3tb20418a
Wu GH, Song P, Zhang DY et al (2017) Robust composite silk fibers pulled out of silkworms directly fed with nanoparticles. Int J Biol Macromol 104:533–538. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.06.069
Wu K, Hu Y, Cheng Z et al (2019) Carbonized regenerated silk nano fiber as multifunctional interlayer for high-performance lithium-sulfur batteries. J Memb Sci. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2019.117349
Xiang F, Zhengzhong S, Xin C (2013) Synthesis of hierarchical three-dimensional copper oxide nanostructures through a biomineralization-inspired approach. Nanoscale 5:7991–7997. https://doi.org/10.1039/c3nr01872e
Xiang M, Wang Y, Wu J et al (2017) Natural silk cocoon derived nitrogen-doped porous carbon nanosheets for high performance lithium-sulfur batteries. Electrochim Acta 227:7–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2016.11.139
Xie Q, Bao R, Xie C et al (2016) Core-shell N-doped active carbon fiber@graphene composites for aqueous symmetric supercapacitors with high-energy and high-power density. J Power Sources 317:133–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.03.099
Xin W, Zhang Z, Huang X et al (2019) High-performance silk-based hybrid membranes employed for osmotic energy conversion. Nat Commun. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-11792-8
Xin W, Xiao H, Kong XY et al (2020) Biomimetic nacre-like silk-crosslinked membranes for osmotic energy harvesting. ACS Nano 14:9701–9710. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.0c01309
Yang N, Qi P, Ren J et al (2019) Polyvinyl alcohol/silk fibroin/borax hydrogel ionotronics: a highly stretchable, self-healable, and biocompatible sensing platform. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 11:23632–23638. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.9b06920
Yin J, Zhang Z, Li X et al (2012) Harvesting energy from water flow over graphene? Nano Lett 12:1736–1741. https://doi.org/10.1021/nl300636g
Yu D, Kang G, Tian W et al (2015) Preparation of conductive silk fabric with antibacterial properties by electroless silver plating. Appl Surf Sci 357:1157–1162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2015.09.074
Yue Z, Economy J (2017) Carbonization and activation for production of activated carbon fibers. Act Carbon Fiber Text. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100660-3.00004-3
Yun YS, Cho SY, Shim J et al (2013) Microporous carbon nanoplates from regenerated silk proteins for supercapacitors. Adv Mater 25:1993–1998. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201204692
Yun YS, Cho SY, Jin HJ (2014) Carbon aerogels based on regenerated silk proteins and graphene oxide for supercapacitors. Macromol Res 22:509–514. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13233-014-2071-4
Zhai Y, Wan Y, Cheng Y et al (2008) The influence of carbon source on the wall structure of ordered mesoporous carbons. J Porous Mater 15:601–611. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10934-007-9139-x
Zhang YQ (2002) Applications of natural silk protein sericin in biomaterials. Biotechnol Adv 20:91–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0734-9750(02)00003-4
Zhang Q, Huang JQ, Qian WZ et al (2013) The road for nanomaterials industry: a review of carbon nanotube production, post-treatment, and bulk applications for composites and energy storage. Small 9:1237–1265. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.201203252
Zhang B, Xiao M, Wang S et al (2014a) Novel hierarchically porous carbon materials obtained from natural biopolymer as host matrixes for lithium-sulfur battery applications. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 6:13174–13182. https://doi.org/10.1021/am503069j
Zhang G, Liu Y, Gao X, Chen Y (2014b) Synthesis of silver nanoparticles and antibacterial property of silk fabrics treated by silver nanoparticles. Nanoscale Res Lett 9:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/1556-276X-9-216
Zhang H, Ni M, Li F et al (2014c) Effects of feeding silkworm with nanoparticulate anatase TiO2 (TiO2 NPs) on its feed efficiency. Biol Trace Elem Res 159:224–232. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-014-9986-7
Zhang J, Cai Y, Zhong Q et al (2015) Porous nitrogen-doped carbon derived from silk fi broin protein encapsulating sulfur as a superior cathode material for high-performance lithium–sulfur batteries. Nanoscale 7:17791–17797. https://doi.org/10.1039/c5nr04768d
Zhang XS, Brugger J, Kim B (2016) A silk-fibroin-based transparent triboelectric generator suitable for autonomous sensor network. Nano Energy 20:37–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2015.11.036
Zhang W, Chen L, Chen J et al (2017) Silk fibroin biomaterial shows safe and effective wound healing in animal models and a randomized controlled clinical trial. Adv Healthc Mater 6:1700121. https://doi.org/10.1002/adhm.201700121
Zhang L, Meng Z, Qi Q et al (2018) Aqueous supercapacitors based on carbonized silk electrodes. RSC Adv 8:22146–22153. https://doi.org/10.1039/c8ra01988f
Zheng X, Zhao M, Zhang H et al (2018) Intrinsically fluorescent silks from silkworms fed with rare-earth upconverting phosphors. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 4:4021–4027. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsbiomaterials.8b00986
Zhou CJ, Li Y, Yao SW, He JH (2019) Silkworm-based silk fibers by electrospinning. Results Phys 15:1–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rinp.2019.102646
Zhu B, Wang H, Leow WR et al (2016) Silk fibroin for flexible electronic devices. Adv Mater 28:4250–4265. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201504276
Acknowledgements
The financial support of this work by the American University in Cairo under proof-of-concept grant is highly appreciated.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Badawy, I.M., Ali, B.A., Abbas, W.A. et al. Natural silk for energy and sensing applications: a review. Environ Chem Lett 19, 2141–2155 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-020-01161-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-020-01161-z