Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Optimization: an attempt to establish empirical evidence for theoretical and practical purposes

  • Published:
European Journal of Psychology of Education Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Optimal best practice is a central feat of human agency. It emphasizes a state of flourishing and reflects, in this case, the paradigm of positive psychology. One research inquiry that is of interest relates to an explanatory account of how a person reaches a state of optimal best. Recent research development has considered an important psychological process, known as optimization, which may explain a person’s achievement of optimal best practice. Having said this, very little is known about the process of optimization. In this article, the authors report on a non-experimental study (N = 352 secondary school students), which focused on the testing of a theoretical model of optimization. Innovatively, derived from existing theorizations and empirical evidence, the authors provide a methodological rationalization of flourishing, which is defined as a “quantitative difference” between a person’s current level of best practice (denoted as L1) and his/her optimal level of best practice (denoted as L2). Structural equation modeling (SEM) indicated a few major findings, for example, (i) a positive association between a person’s optimal best practice and his/her academic performance in a subject matter, (ii) a person’s current level of best practice acts as a determinant of optimal best practice, and (iii) personal resolve, as a psychological optimizing agent, directly influences optimal best practice, and potentially mediating the effects of academic striving and a person’s current level of best practice on optimal best practice.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W. H. Freeman & Co..

    Google Scholar 

  • Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173–1182.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boekaerts, M., & Corno, L. (2005). Self-regulation in the classroom: a perspective on assessment and intervention. Applied Psychology, 54(2), 199–231. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2005.00205.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boekaerts, M., & Niemivirta, M. (2005). Self-regulated learning: Finding a balance between learning goals and ego-protective goals. In M. Boekaerts, P. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 417–446). San Diego: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brighouse, H. (2005). On Education. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Byrne, B. M. (1998). Structural equation modelling with LISREL, PRELIS, and SIMPLIS. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. S. (2005). On the structure of behavioural regulation. In M. Boekaerts, P. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 41–84). San Diego: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chou, C. P., & Bentler, P. M. (1995). Estimates and tests in structural equation modelling. In R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), Structural equation modelling: Concepts, issues, and applications (pp. 37–55). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chouinard, R., Karsenti, T., & Roy, N. (2007). Relations among competence beliefs, utility value, achievement goals, and effort in mathematics. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(3), 501–517.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeBacker, T. K., & Nelson, R. M. (1999). Variations on an expectancy-value model of motivation in science. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 24(2), 71–94. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1998.0984.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Self-determination theory: a macrotheory of human motivation, development, and health. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne, 49(3), 182–185.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and education - the self-determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3-4), 325–346. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep2603&4_6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Wirtz, D., Biswas-Diener, R., Tov, W., Kim-Prieto, C., Choi, D.-W., & Oishi, S. (2009). New measures of well-being. In E. Diener (Ed.), Assessing well-being: The collected works of Ed Diener (pp. 247–266). Netherlands: Springer Science+Business Media B.V.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Wirtz, D., Tov, W., Kim-Prieto, C., Choi, D. W., Oishi, S., & Biswas-Diener, R. (2010). New well-being measures: short scales to assess flourishing and positive and negative feelings. Social Indicators Research, 97(2), 143–156. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-009-9493-y.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elliot, A. J., McGregor, H. A., & Gable, S. (1999). Achievement goals, study strategies, and exam performances: a mediational analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91(3), 549–563.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fenollar, P., Román, S., & Cuestas, P. J. (2007). University studentsʼ academic performance: an integrative conceptual framework and empirical analysis. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(Pt 4), 873–891. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709907X189118.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fraillon, J. (2004). Measuring student well-being in the context of Australian schooling: Discussion Paper (E. Ministerial Council on Education, Training and Youth Affairs Ed.). Carlton South, Victoria: The Australian Council for Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L. (2000). Cultivating positive emotions to optimize health and well-being. Prevention & Treatment, 3, Article ID 1. https://doi.org/10.1037/1522-3736.3.1.31a.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freund, A. M., & Baltes, P. B. (1998). Selection, optimization, and compensation as strategies of life management: correlations with subjective indicators of successful aging. Psychology and Aging, 13(4), 531–543. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.13.4.531.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Henry, K. L., Knight, K. E., & Thornberry, T. P. (2012). School disengagement as a predictor of dropout, delinquency, and problem substance use during adolescence and early adulthood. Journal of Youth Adolescence, 41(2), 156–166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ho, I. T., & Hau, K.-T. (2008). Academic achievement in the Chinese context: the role of goals, strategies, and effort. International Journal of Psychology, 43(5), 892–897.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huppert, F. A., & So, T. T. (2013). Flourishing across Europe: application of a new conceptual framework for defining well-being. Social Indicators Research, 110(3), 837–861. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-011-9966-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keyes, C., & Haidt, J. (2002). Flourishing: positive psychology and the life well-lived: Washington American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keyes, C. L. M., & Haidt, J. (Eds.). (2003). Flourishing: positive psychology and the life well lived (1st ed.). Washington DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (3rd ed.). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lens, W., Lacante, M., Vansteenkiste, M., & Herrera, D. (2005). Study persistence and academic achievement as a function of the type of competing tendencies. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 20(3), 275–287.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liem, A. D., Lau, S., & Nie, Y. (2008). The role of self-efficacy, task value, and achievement goals in predicting learning strategies, task disengagement, peer relationship, and achievement outcome. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 33(4), 486–512. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2007.08.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liem, G. A. D., Ginns, P., Martin, A. J., Stone, B., & Herrett, M. (2012). Personal best goals and academic and social functioning: a longitudinal perspective. Learning and Instruction, 22(3), 222–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2011.11.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacCallum, R. C., & Austin, J. T. (2000). Applications of structural equation modeling in psychological research. Annual Review of Psychology, 51(201 - 226), 201–226. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.51.1.201.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, A. J., & Liem, G. A. D. (2010). Academic personal bests (PBs), engagement, and achievement: a cross-lagged panel analysis. Learning and Individual Differences, 20(3), 265–270.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, A. J., & Marsh, H. W. (2008). Academic buoyancy: towards an understanding of studentsʼ everyday academic resilience. Journal of School Psychology, 46(1), 53–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2007.01.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, A. J., Ginns, P., Brackett, M. A., Malmberg, L. E., & Hall, J. (2013). Academic buoyancy and psychological risk: exploring reciprocal relationships. Learning and Individual Differences, 27, 128–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2013.06.006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCartney, K., Dearing, E., Taylor, B. A., & Bub, K. L. (2007). Quality child care supports the achievement of low-income children: direct and indirect pathways through caregiving and the home environment. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 28(5-6), 411–426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2007.06.010.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998-2012). Mplus User's Guide (7th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. Review of Educational Research, 66(4), 543–578. https://doi.org/10.2307/1170653.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phan, H. P., Ngu, B. H., & Yeung, A. S. (2017). Achieving optimal best: Instructional efficiency and the use of cognitive loadtheory in mathematical problem solving. Educational Psychology Review, 29(4), 667–692. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-016-9373-3.

  • Phan, H. P., Ngu, B. H., & Alrashidi, O. (2018a). Contextualised self-beliefs in totality: an integrated framework from a longitudinal perspective. Educational Psychology, 38(4), 411–434. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2017.1356446.

  • Phan, H. P., Ngu, B. H., Wang, H.-W., Shih, J.-H., Shi, S.-Y., & Lin, R.-Y. (2018b). Introducing the theoretical concept of 'profiling': A cross-cultural perspective. In R. V. Nata (Ed.), Progress in Education (Vol. 53, pp. 43–74). New York, NY: Nova Science.

  • Phan, H. P., Ngu, B. H., Wang, H.-W., Shih, J.-H., Shi, S.-Y., & Lin, R.-Y. (2018c). Understanding levels of best practice: An empirical development. PLOS One, 13(6). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0198888.

  • Phan, H. P., Ngu, B. H., Wang, H.-W., Shih, J.-H., Shi, S.-Y., & Lin, R.-Y. (2019a). Achieving optimal best practice: An inquiry into its nature and characteristics. PLOS One, 14(4), e0215732. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0215732.

  • Phan, H. P., Ngu, B. H., Lin, R.-Y., Wang, H.-W., Shih, J.-H., & Shi, S.-Y. (2019b). Predicting and enhancing students’ positiveemotions: An empirical study from a Taiwanese sociocultural context. Heliyon, 5(10), e02550. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e02550.

  • Phan, H. P., Ngu, B. H., & Yeung, A. S. (2019c). Optimization: In-depth examination and proposition. Frontiers in Psychology,10(1398). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01398.

  • Phan, H. P., & Ngu, B. H. (2019). Teaching, Learning and Psychology. Docklands, Melbourne: Oxford University Press.

  • Phan, H. P., & Ngu, B. H. (In Review). Introducing the concept of 'Optimal Efficiency'. Heliyon.

  • Pintrich, P. R., Smith, D. A. F., Garcia, T., & McKeachie, W. J. (1993). Reliability and predictive validity of the motivated strategies for learning questionnaire (MSLQ). Educational and Psychological Measurement, 53, 810–814.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rittle-Johnson, B., Fyfe, E. R., & Loehr, A. M. (2016). Improving conceptual and procedural knowledge: the impact of instructional content within a mathematics lesson. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 86(4), 576–591. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Satorra, A. (2000). Scaled and adjusted restricted tests in multi-sample analysis of moment structures. In R. D. H. Heijmans, D. S. G. Pollock, & A. Satorra (Eds.), Innovations in multivariate statistical analysis. A Festschrift for Heinz Neudecker (pp. 233–247). London: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Satorra, A., & Bentler, P. M. (2010). Ensuring Positiveness of the scaled difference chi-square test statistic. Psychometrika, 75(2), 243–248. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11336-009-9135-y.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M. E., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology. An introduction. Am Psychol, 55(1), 5–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sheldon, K. M., & King, I. (2001). Why positive psychology is necessary. American Psychologist, 56(3), 216–217.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Star, J. R., Pollack, C., Durkin, K., Rittle-Johnson, B., Lynch, K., Newton, K., & Gogolen, C. (2015). Learning from comparison in algebra. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 40(0), 41–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2014.05.005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Su, R., Tay, L., & Diener, E. (2014). The development and validation of the Comprehensive Inventory of Thriving (CIT) and the Brief Inventory of Thriving (BIT). Applied Psychology: Health and Well Being, 6(3), 251–279. https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12027.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc..

    Google Scholar 

  • Trafimow, D. (2015). Introduction to the special issue on mediation analyses: what if planetary scientists used mediation analysis to infer causation? Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 37(4), 197–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/01973533.2015.1064290.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • VanderWeele, T. J. (2017). On the promotion of human flourishing. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A, 31, 8148–8156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vanthournout, G., Gijbels, D., Coertjens, L., Donche, V., & Van Petegem, P. (2012). Students’ persistence and academic success in a first-year professional bachelor program: the influence of studentsʼ learning strategies and academic motivation. Education Research International, 2012, 10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wentzel, K. R., Muenks, K., McNeish, D., & Russell, S. (2017). Peer and teacher supports in relation to motivation and effort: a multi-level study. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 49, 32–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wiese, C. W., Tay, L., Su, R., & Diener, E. (2018). Measuring thriving across nations: examining the measurement equivalence of the Comprehensive Inventory of Thriving (CIT) and the Brief Inventory of Thriving (BIT). Applied Psychology: Health and Well Being, 10(1), 127–148. https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yeung, A. S. (2011). Student self-concept and effort: gender and grade differences. Educational Psychology, 31(6), 749–772.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ziegelmann, J. P., & Lippke, S. (2007). Use of selection, optimization, and compensation strategies in health self-regulation - interplay with resources and successful development. Journal of Aging and Health, 19(3), 500–518. https://doi.org/10.1177/0898264307300197.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Education, University of New England, Armidale, Australia

    Huy P. Phan & Bing H. Ngu

Authors
  1. Huy P. Phan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Bing H. Ngu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Huy P. Phan.

Additional information

Huy P. Phan. School of Education, University of New England, Armidale, Australia. Email: hphan2@une.edu.au

Current themes of research:

Mindfulness. Holistic and Positive psychology. The self-systems (e.g., self-esteem, self-efficacy). Human optimization and achievement bests. Academic optimism. Student well-beings. Cognitive processes of learning (e.g., cognitive load). Life and Spiritual education.

Most relevant publications in the field of Psychology of Education:

Phan, H. P., Ngu, B. H., & Yeung, A. S. (2017). Achieving optimal best: Instructional efficiency and the use of cognitive load theory in mathematical problem solving. Educational Psychology Review, 29(4), 667–692. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-016-9373-3.

Phan, H. P., Ngu, B. H., Wang, H.-W., Shih, J.-H., Shi, S.-Y., & Lin, R.-Y. (2018). Understanding levels of best practice: An empirical development. PLOS One, 13(6). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0198888.

Phan, H. P., & Ngu, B. H. (2019). Teaching, Learning and Psychology. Docklands, Melbourne: Oxford University Press.

Phan, H. P., Ngu, B. H., & Yeung, A. S. (2019). Optimization: In-depth examination and proposition. Frontiers in Psychology, 10(1398). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01398.

Phan, H. P., Ngu, B. H., & McQueen, K. (2020). Future time perspective and the achievement of optimal best. Frontiers in Psychology, 11(1037). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01037.

Phan, H. P., Ngu, B. H., Shih, J.-H., Lin, R.-Y., Shi, S.-Y., & Wang, H.-W. (2020). Validating newly developed ‘optimizing’ concepts: The Importance of Personal Resolve, Effective Functioning, and Academic Striving. Educational Psychology, 40(4), 448–472. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2019.1693507.

Bing H. Ngu. School of Education, University of New England. Armidale, Australia. Email: bngu@une.edu.au

Current themes of research:

Cognitive processes (e.g., cognitive load). Instructional designs. The self-systems (e.g., self-esteem, self-efficacy). Human optimization and achievement bests. Student well-beings. Holistic and Positive education. Experimental methodologies.

Most relevant publications in the field of Psychology of Education:

Ngu, B. H., Phan, H. P., Hong, K. S., & Hasbee, U. (2016). Reducing intrinsic cognitive load in percentage change problems: The equation approach. Learning and Individual Differences, 51, 81–90.

Ngu, B. H., & Phan, H. P. (2017). Will learning to solve one-step equations pose a challenge to 8th grade students? International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 48(6), 876–894.

Ngu, B. H., Phan, H. P., Yeung, A. S., & Chung, S. F. (2018). Managing element interactivity in equation solving. Educational Psychology Review, 30(1), 255–272. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-016-9397-8.

Ngu, B. H., Yeung, A. S., Phan, H. P., Hong, K. S., & Usop, H. (2018). Learning to solve challenging percentage-change problems: A cross-cultural study from a Cognitive Load Perspective. Journal of Experimental Education, 86(3), 362–385. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220973.2017.1347774.

Ngu, B. H., Phan, H. P., Wang, H.-W., Shih, J.-H., Shi, S.-Y., & Lin, R.-Y. (2019). Best practice in mathematics learning: A theoretical discussion for consideration. In R. V. Nata (Ed.), Progress in education (Vol. 55, pp. 79 – 112). New York: Nova Science Publishers.

Phan, H. P., & Ngu, B. H. (2019). Teaching, Learning and Psychology. Docklands, Melbourne: Oxford University Press.

Publisher’s note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Phan, H.P., Ngu, B.H. Optimization: an attempt to establish empirical evidence for theoretical and practical purposes. Eur J Psychol Educ 36, 453–475 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-020-00484-3

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-020-00484-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation