Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Interacting effect of MAOA genotype and maternal prenatal smoking on aggressive behavior in young adulthood

  • Psychiatry and Preclinical Psychiatric Studies - Original Article
  • Published:
Journal of Neural Transmission Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Findings on the etiology of aggressive behavior have provided evidence for an effect both of genetic factors, such as variation in the monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) gene, and adverse environmental factors. Recent studies have supported the existence of gene × environment interactions, with early experiences playing a key role. In the present study, the effects of prenatal nicotine exposure, MAOA genotype and their interaction on aggressive behavior during young adulthood were examined. In a sample of 272 young adults (129 males, 143 females) from an epidemiological cohort study, smoking during pregnancy was measured with a standardized parent interview at the offspring’s age of 3 months. Aggressive behavior was assessed between the ages of 19 and 25 years using the Young Adult Self-Report. DNA was genotyped for the MAOA 5′ untranslated region variable number of tandem repeats polymorphism (VNTR). Results revealed a significant interaction between MAOA and smoking during pregnancy, indicating higher levels of aggressive behavior in young adults carrying the MAOA low-expressing genotype who had experienced prenatal nicotine exposure (n = 8, p = .025). In contrast, in carriers of the MAOA high-expressing genotype, maternal smoking during pregnancy had no effect on aggressive behavior during young adulthood (n = 20, p = .145). This study extends earlier findings demonstrating an interaction between MAOA genotype and prenatal nicotine exposure on aggressive behavior into young adulthood. The results point to the long-term adverse effects of smoking during pregnancy on the offspring’s mental health, possibly underlining the importance of smoking cessation during pregnancy. According to the nature of the study (particularly sample size and power), analyses are exploratory and results need to be interpreted cautiously.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Achenbach TM (1991) Young Adult Self-Report. University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry Burlington, Burlington

    Google Scholar 

  • Achenbach T (1997) Manual for the Young Adult Self-Report and Young Adult Behavior Checklist. University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry Burlington, Burlington

    Google Scholar 

  • Agrez U, Winkler Metzke C, Steinhausen H-C (2011) Psychometric characteristics of the German version of the Young Adult Self-Report (YASR). Z Klin Psychol Psychother 40(2):75–84

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aslund C, Nordquist N, Comasco E, Leppert J, Oreland L, Nilsson KW (2011) Maltreatment, MAOA, and delinquency: sex differences in gene-environment interaction in a large population-based cohort of adolescents. Behav Genet 41(2):262–272. doi:10.1007/s10519-010-9356-y

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Audero E, Mlinar B, Baccini G, Skachokova ZK, Corradetti R, Gross C (2013) Suppression of serotonin neuron firing increases aggression in mice. J Neurosci 33(20):8678–8688. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2067-12.2013

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Banerjee TD, Middleton F, Faraone SV (2007) Environmental risk factors for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Acta Paediatr 96(9):1269–1274

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barr CS, Driscoll C (2014) Neurogenetics of aggressive behavior: studies in primates. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 17:45–71. doi:10.1007/7854_2013_267

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brion MJ, Victora C, Matijasevich A, Horta B, Anselmi L, Steer C, Menezes AM, Lawlor DA, Davey Smith G (2010) Maternal smoking and child psychological problems: disentangling causal and noncausal effects. Pediatrics 126(1):e57–65. doi:10.1542/peds.2009-2754

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Brown GL, Ebert MH, Goyer PF, Jimerson DC, Klein WJ, Bunney WE, Goodwin FK (1982) Aggression, suicide, and serotonin: relationships to CSF amine metabolites. Am J Psychiatry 139(6):741–746

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bublitz MH, Stroud LR (2012) Maternal smoking during pregnancy and offspring brain structure and function: review and agenda for future research. Nicotine Tob Res 14(4):388–397. doi:10.1093/ntr/ntr191

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buckholtz JW, Callicott JH, Kolachana B, Hariri AR, Goldberg TE, Genderson M, Egan MF, Mattay VS, Weinberger DR, Meyer-Lindenberg A (2008) Genetic variation in MAOA modulates ventromedial prefrontal circuitry mediating individual differences in human personality. Mol Psychiatry 13(3):313–324. doi:10.1038/sj.mp.4002020

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burt SA (2009) Are there meaningful etiological differences within antisocial behavior? Results of a meta-analysis. Clin Psychol Rev 29(2):163–178. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2008.12.004

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Button TM, Thapar A, McGuffin P (2005) Relationship between antisocial behaviour, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and maternal prenatal smoking. Br J Psychiatry 187:155–160

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Byrd AL, Manuck SB (2014) MAOA, childhood maltreatment, and antisocial behavior: meta-analysis of a gene-environment interaction. Biol Psychiatry 75(1):9–17. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.05.004

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carrel L, Willard HF (2005) X-inactivation profile reveals extensive variability in X-linked gene expression in females. Nature 434(7031):400–404. doi:10.1038/nature03479

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cases O, Seif I, Grimsby J, Gaspar P, Chen K, Pournin S, Muller U, Aguet M, Babinet C, Shih JC et al (1995) Aggressive behavior and altered amounts of brain serotonin and norepinephrine in mice lacking MAOA. Science 268(5218):1763–1766

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Caspi A, McClay J, Moffitt TE, Mill J, Martin J, Craig IW, Taylor A, Poulton R (2002) Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science 297(5582):851–854. doi:10.1126/science.1072290

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coccaro EF (1989) Central serotonin and impulsive aggression. Br J Psychiatry Suppl 8:52–62

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen J (1988) Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences, 2nd edn. Erlbaum, Hillsdale

    Google Scholar 

  • Deng X, Berletch JB, Nguyen DK, Disteche CM (2014) X chromosome regulation: diverse patterns in development, tissues and disease. Nat Rev Genet 15(6):367–378. doi:10.1038/nrg3687

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • D’Onofrio BM, Van Hulle CA, Waldman ID, Rodgers JL, Harden KP, Rathouz PJ, Lahey BB (2008) Smoking during pregnancy and offspring externalizing problems: an exploration of genetic and environmental confounds. Dev Psychopathol 20(1):139–164. doi:10.1017/S0954579408000072

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • D’Onofrio BM, Singh AL, Iliadou A, Lambe M, Hultman CM, Grann M, Neiderhiser JM, Langstrom N, Lichtenstein P (2010) Familial confounding of the association between maternal smoking during pregnancy and offspring criminality: a population-based study in Sweden. Arch Gen Psychiatry 67(5):529–538. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.33

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • D’Onofrio BM, Van Hulle CA, Goodnight JA, Rathouz PJ, Lahey BB (2012) Is maternal smoking during pregnancy a causal environmental risk factor for adolescent antisocial behavior? Testing etiological theories and assumptions. Psychol Med 42(7):1535–1545. doi:10.1017/S0033291711002443

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ducci F, Enoch MA, Hodgkinson C, Xu K, Catena M, Robin RW, Goldman D (2008) Interaction between a functional MAOA locus and childhood sexual abuse predicts alcoholism and antisocial personality disorder in adult women. Mol Psychiatry 13(3):334–347

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duncan LE, Keller MC (2011) A critical review of the first 10 years of candidate gene-by-environment interaction research in psychiatry. Am J Psychiatry 168(10):1041–1049. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.11020191

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Dwyer JB, McQuown SC, Leslie FM (2009) The dynamic effects of nicotine on the developing brain. Pharmacol Ther 122(2):125–139. doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2009.02.003

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Eley TC, Lichtenstein P, Moffitt TE (2003) A longitudinal behavioral genetic analysis of the etiology of aggressive and nonaggressive antisocial behavior. Dev Psychopathol 15(2):383–402

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ellingson JM, Goodnight JA, Van Hulle CA, Waldman ID, D’Onofrio BM (2014) A sibling-comparison study of smoking during pregnancy and childhood psychological traits. Behav Genet 44(1):25–35. doi:10.1007/s10519-013-9618-6

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fergusson DM, Boden JM, Horwood LJ, Miller A, Kennedy MA (2012) Moderating role of the MAOA genotype in antisocial behaviour. Br J Psychiatry 200(2):116–123. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.111.093328

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fowler JS, Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Pappas N, Logan J, Shea C, Alexoff D, MacGregor RR, Schlyer DJ, Zezulkova I, Wolf AP (1996) Brain monoamine oxidase A inhibition in cigarette smokers. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93(24):14065–14069

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fowler JS, Alia-Klein N, Kriplani A, Logan J, Williams B, Zhu W, Craig IW, Telang F, Goldstein R, Volkow ND, Vaska P, Wang GJ (2007) Evidence that brain MAO A activity does not correspond to MAO A genotype in healthy male subjects. Biol Psychiatry 62(4):355–358. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.08.038

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frazzetto G, Di Lorenzo G, Carola V, Proietti L, Sokolowska E, Siracusano A, Gross C, Troisi A (2007) Early trauma and increased risk for physical aggression during adulthood: the moderating role of MAOA genotype. PLoS One 2(5):e486

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gaysina D, Fergusson DM, Leve LD, Horwood J, Reiss D, Shaw DS, Elam KK, Natsuaki MN, Neiderhiser JM, Harold GT (2013) Maternal smoking during pregnancy and offspring conduct problems: evidence from 3 independent genetically sensitive research designs. JAMA Psychiatry 70(9):956–963. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.127

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Haberstick BC, Lessem JM, Hewitt JK, Smolen A, Hopfer CJ, Halpern CT, Killeya-Jones LA, Boardman JD, Tabor J, Siegler IC, Williams RB, Mullan Harris K (2014) MAOA genotype, childhood maltreatment, and their interaction in the etiology of adult antisocial behaviors. Biol Psychiatry 75(1):25–30. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.03.028

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Holz N, Boecker R, Buchmann AF, Blomeyer D, Baumeister S, Hohmann S, Jennen-Steinmetz C, Wolf I, Rietschel M, Witt SH, Plichta MM, Meyer-Lindenberg A, Schmidt MH, Esser G, Banaschewski T, Brandeis D, Laucht M (2014) Evidence for a sex-dependent MAOA x childhood stress interaction in the neural circuitry of aggression. Cereb Cortex. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhu249

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kieling C, Hutz MH, Genro JP, Polanczyk GV, Anselmi L, Camey S, Hallal PC, Barros FC, Victora CG, Menezes AM, Rohde LA (2013) Gene-environment interaction in externalizing problems among adolescents: evidence from the Pelotas 1993 Birth Cohort Study. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 54(3):298–304. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12022

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kim-Cohen J, Caspi A, Taylor A, Williams B, Newcombe R, Craig IW, Moffitt TE (2006) MAOA, maltreatment, and gene-environment interaction predicting children’s mental health: new evidence and a meta-analysis. Mol Psychiatry 11(10):903–913

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Langley K, Rice F, van den Bree MB, Thapar A (2005) Maternal smoking during pregnancy as an environmental risk factor for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder behaviour. A review. Minerva Pediatr 57(6):359–371

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Laucht M, Esser G, Schmidt MH (1997) Developmental outcome of infants born with biological and psychosocial risks. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 38(7):843–853

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Laucht M, Esser G, Baving L, Gerhold M, Hoesch I, Ihle W, Steigleider P, Stock B, Stoehr RM, Weindrich D, Schmidt MH (2000) Behavioral sequelae of perinatal insults and early family adversity at 8 years of age. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 39(10):1229–1237

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Laucht M, Brandeis D, Zohsel K (2014) Gene-environment interactions in the etiology of human violence. In: Miczek KA, Meyer-Lindenberg A (eds) Neuroscience of aggression: preclinical and clinical research. Springer, Berlin, pp 267–295

    Google Scholar 

  • Linnoila VM, Virkkunen M (1992) Aggression, suicidality, and serotonin. J Clin Psychiatry 53(Suppl):46–51

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Manuck SB, Flory JD, Ferrell RE, Mann JJ, Muldoon MF (2000) A regulatory polymorphism of the monoamine oxidase-A gene may be associated with variability in aggression, impulsivity, and central nervous system serotonergic responsivity. Psychiatry Res 95(1):9–23

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maughan B, Taylor A, Caspi A, Moffitt TE (2004) Prenatal smoking and early childhood conduct problems: testing genetic and environmental explanations of the association. Arch Gen Psychiatry 61(8):836–843. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.61.8.836

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mertins V, Schote AB, Hoffeld W, Griessmair M, Meyer J (2011) Genetic susceptibility for individual cooperation preferences: the role of monoamine oxidase A gene (MAOA) in the voluntary provision of public goods. PLoS One 6(6):e20959. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0020959

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer-Lindenberg A, Nichols T, Callicott JH, Ding J, Kolachana B, Buckholtz J, Mattay VS, Egan M, Weinberger DR (2006) Impact of complex genetic variation in COMT on human brain function. Mol Psychiatry 11(9):867–877 (797)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Motlagh MG, Katsovich L, Thompson N, Lin H, Kim YS, Scahill L, Lombroso PJ, King RA, Peterson BS, Leckman JF (2010) Severe psychosocial stress and heavy cigarette smoking during pregnancy: an examination of the pre- and perinatal risk factors associated with ADHD and Tourette syndrome. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 19(10):755–764. doi:10.1007/s00787-010-0115-7

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Nicotra A, Pierucci F, Parvez H, Senatori O (2004) Monoamine oxidase expression during development and aging. Neurotoxicology 25(1–2):155–165. doi:10.1016/S0161-813X(03)00095-0

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prom-Wormley EC, Eaves LJ, Foley DL, Gardner CO, Archer KJ, Wormley BK, Maes HH, Riley BP, Silberg JL (2009) Monoamine oxidase A and childhood adversity as risk factors for conduct disorder in females. Psychol Med 39(4):579–590. doi:10.1017/S0033291708004170

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reti IM, Xu JZ, Yanofski J, McKibben J, Uhart M, Cheng YJ, Zandi P, Bienvenu OJ, Samuels J, Willour V, Kasch-Semenza L, Costa P, Bandeen-Roche K, Eaton WW, Nestadt G (2011) Monoamine oxidase A regulates antisocial personality in whites with no history of physical abuse. Compr Psychiatry 52(2):188–194. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2010.05.005

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rice F, Harold GT, Boivin J, Hay DF, van den Bree M, Thapar A (2009) Disentangling prenatal and inherited influences in humans with an experimental design. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106(7):2464–2467. doi:10.1073/pnas.0808798106

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rutter M, Quinton D (1977) Psychiatric disorder-ecological factors and concepts of causation. In: McGurk M (ed) Ecological factors in human development. North Holland, Amsterdam, pp 173–87

    Google Scholar 

  • Sabol SZ, Hu S, Hamer D (1998) A functional polymorphism in the monoamine oxidase A gene promoter. Hum Genet 103(3):273–279

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shih JC, Chen K, Ridd MJ (1999) Monoamine oxidase: from genes to behavior. Annu Rev Neurosci 22:197–217

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shumay E, Fowler JS (2010) Identification and characterization of putative methylation targets in the MAOA locus using bioinformatic approaches. Epigenetics 5(4):325–342

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shumay E, Logan J, Volkow ND, Fowler JS (2012) Evidence that the methylation state of the monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) gene predicts brain activity of MAO A enzyme in healthy men. Epigenetics 7(10):1151–1160. doi:10.4161/epi.21976

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sjoberg RL, Nilsson KW, Wargelius HL, Leppert J, Lindstrom L, Oreland L (2007) Adolescent girls and criminal activity: role of MAOA-LPR genotype and psychosocial factors. Am J Med Genet Part B Neuropsychiatr Genet 144B(2):159–164. doi:10.1002/ajmg.b.30360

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Slotkin TA (1998) Fetal nicotine or cocaine exposure: which one is worse? J Pharmacol Exp Ther 285(3):931–945

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Slotkin TA, MacKillop EA, Rudder CL, Ryde IT, Tate CA, Seidler FJ (2007) Permanent, sex-selective effects of prenatal or adolescent nicotine exposure, separately or sequentially, in rat brain regions: indices of cholinergic and serotonergic synaptic function, cell signaling, and neural cell number and size at 6 months of age. Neuropsychopharmacology 32(5):1082–1097. doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1301231

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor A, Kim-Cohen J (2007) Meta-analysis of gene-environment interactions in developmental psychopathology. Dev Psychopathol 19(4):1029–1037. doi:10.1017/S095457940700051X

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wakschlag LS, Pickett KE, Cook E Jr, Benowitz NL, Leventhal BL (2002) Maternal smoking during pregnancy and severe antisocial behavior in offspring: a review. Am J Public Health 92(6):966–974

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wakschlag LS, Kistner EO, Pine DS, Biesecker G, Pickett KE, Skol AD, Dukic V, Blair RJ, Leventhal BL, Cox NJ, Burns JL, Kasza KE, Wright RJ, Cook EH Jr (2010) Interaction of prenatal exposure to cigarettes and MAOA genotype in pathways to youth antisocial behavior. Mol Psychiatry 15(9):928–937. doi:10.1038/mp.2009.22

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Widom CS, Brzustowicz LM (2006) MAOA and the “cycle of violence:” childhood abuse and neglect, MAOA genotype, and risk for violent and antisocial behavior. Biol Psychiatry 60(7):684–689

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We thank E. Reichert and S. Heinzel, who assisted with the data acquisition. This study was supported by grants from the German Research Foundation (DFG) and the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research as part of the ‘Baden-Wuerttemberg Consortium for Addiction Research’ and the ‘National Genome Research Network’.

Author information

Author notes

    Authors and Affiliations

    1. Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, J 5, D-68159, Mannheim, Germany

      Sarah Hohmann, Katrin Zohsel, Arlette F. Buchmann, Dorothea Blomeyer, Nathalie Holz, Regina Boecker-Schlier, Martin H. Schmidt, Tobias Banaschewski, Daniel Brandeis, Erika Hohm & Manfred Laucht

    2. Department of Biostatistics, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany

      Christine Jennen-Steinmetz

    3. Department of Genetic Epidemiology in Psychiatry, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany

      Marcella Rietschel & Stephanie H. Witt

    4. Department of Psychology, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany

      Günter Esser & Manfred Laucht

    5. Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany

      Andreas Meyer-Lindenberg

    6. Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland

      Daniel Brandeis

    7. Zurich Center for Integrative Human Physiology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland

      Daniel Brandeis

    8. Neuroscience Center Zurich, University and ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland

      Daniel Brandeis

    Authors
    1. Sarah Hohmann
      View author publications

      You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

    2. Katrin Zohsel
      View author publications

      You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

    3. Arlette F. Buchmann
      View author publications

      You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

    4. Dorothea Blomeyer
      View author publications

      You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

    5. Nathalie Holz
      View author publications

      You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

    6. Regina Boecker-Schlier
      View author publications

      You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

    7. Christine Jennen-Steinmetz
      View author publications

      You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

    8. Marcella Rietschel
      View author publications

      You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

    9. Stephanie H. Witt
      View author publications

      You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

    10. Martin H. Schmidt
      View author publications

      You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

    11. Günter Esser
      View author publications

      You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

    12. Andreas Meyer-Lindenberg
      View author publications

      You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

    13. Tobias Banaschewski
      View author publications

      You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

    14. Daniel Brandeis
      View author publications

      You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

    15. Erika Hohm
      View author publications

      You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

    16. Manfred Laucht
      View author publications

      You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

    Corresponding author

    Correspondence to Manfred Laucht.

    Ethics declarations

    Conflict of interest

    TB served in an advisory or consultancy role for Bristol Myers-Sqibb, Desitin, Lilly, Medice, Novartis, Pfizer, Shire and Viforpharma. He received conference attendance support and conference support or received speaker’s fees from Lilly, Janssen McNeil, Medice, Novartis, and Shire. He is/has been involved in clinical trials conducted by Lilly, Shire and Novartis. SH received a speaker’s fee from Janssen-Cilag. A. M.-L. has received fees for consultancy from Lundbeck International Neuroscience, Thieme Verlag Germany, and Elsevier USA; for lectures, including travel fees, from Aula Médica Congresos, Groupo Ferrer International, Janssen-Cilag, Lilly Deutschland, Roche Pharma AG; and also grants from the Federal Office for Radiation Protection Germany and the Prix Roger de Spoelberch. The present work is unrelated to the above grants and relationships. All other authors declare that they have no biomedical financial interest or potential conflicts of interest.

    Additional information

    E. Hohm and M. Laucht contributed equally to this work.

    Rights and permissions

    Reprints and permissions

    About this article

    Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

    Cite this article

    Hohmann, S., Zohsel, K., Buchmann, A.F. et al. Interacting effect of MAOA genotype and maternal prenatal smoking on aggressive behavior in young adulthood. J Neural Transm 123, 885–894 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-016-1582-x

    Download citation

    • Received:

    • Accepted:

    • Published:

    • Issue Date:

    • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-016-1582-x

    Keywords

    Search

    Navigation