Abstract
Keloids are tumor-like lesions that result from excessive scar formation during healing of wounds. Histologically, keloids show an increased blood vessel density compared with normal dermis or normal scars. However, the angiogenic activity of keloid fibroblasts remains unknown. In this study, we investigated angiogenic activity of keloid fibroblasts. Transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) were investigated as elements of the angiogenic factors. Expressions of TGF-β1 and VEGF in conditioned medium were measured with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (EIA) and Northern blot analysis. Participation of TGF-β1 in the production of VEGF was also investigated with addition of TGF-β1 and a neutralizing anti-TGF-β1 antibody. A modified Boyden chamber assay was performed to assess the chemotactic activity of vascular endothelial cells. Angiogenic activity in vivo was evaluated by neovascularization of nodules formed by implantation of fibroblasts into severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) mice. EIA showed that the concentrations of TGF-β1 and VEGF in conditioned medium were increased 2.5- and 6-fold, respectively, after the culture of keloid fibroblasts compared with normal fibroblasts. Northern blot analysis revealed that the expression of TGF-β1 and VEGF mRNA was upregulated 3.6- and 6-fold, respectively, in keloid fibroblasts compared with normal fibroblasts. Addition of TGF-β1 to keloid fibroblast cultures increased VEGF production by 3.5-fold, while there was a 6-fold in culture of normal fibroblasts. A neutralizing anti-TGF-β1 antibody reduced VEGF secretion to control levels, suggesting that TGF-β1 mediated the upregulation of VEGF expression. A modified Boyden chamber assay demonstrated that the chemotactic activity of vascular endothelial cells was more strongly (sevenfold) induced by keloid fibroblast-conditioned medium than by normal fibroblast-conditioned medium. Anti-VEGF antibody inhibited chemotaxis to basal levels. When SCID mice underwent implantation of fibroblasts into the back, the nodules formed by keloid fibroblasts were three times larger than those formed by normal fibroblasts. Although abundant neovascularization was observed in keloid fibroblast nodules, neovascularization was scarce in normal fibroblast nodules. Both in vitro and in vivo studies confirmed the significantly higher angiogenic activity of keloid fibroblasts compared with normal fibroblasts, and TGF-β1 and VEGF were clearly shown to be involved. These results suggest that angiogenesis in keloids is promoted by endogenous TGF-β1 and VEGF.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Appleton I, Brown NJ, Willoughby DA (1996) Apoptosis, necrosis, and proliferation: possible implications in the etiology of keloids. Am J Pathol 149:1441–1447
Ashcroft GS, Dodsworth J, van Boxtel E, Tarnuzzer RW, Horan MA, Schultz GS, Ferguson MW (1997) Estrogen accelerates cutaneous wound healing associated with an increase in TGF-β1 levels. Nat Med 3:1209–1215
Beer TW, Baldwin HC, Goddard JR, Gallagher PJ, Wright DH (1998) Angiogenesis in pathological and surgical scars. Hum Pathol 29:1273–1278
Berse B, Hunt JA, Diegel RJ, Morganelli P, Yeo K, Brown F, Fava RA (1999) Hypoxia augments cytokine (transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) and IL-1)-induced vascular endothelial growth factor secretion by human synovial fibroblasts. Clin Exp Immunol 115:176–182
Bettinger DA, Yager DR, Diegelmann RF, Cohen IK (1996) The effect of TGF-β on keloid fibroblast proliferation and collagen synthesis. Plast Reconstr Surg 98:827–833
Brogi E, Wu T, Namiki A, Isner JM (1994) Indirect angiogenic cytokines upregulate VEGF and bFGF gene expression in vascular smooth muscle cells, whereas hypoxia upregulates VEGF expression only. Circulation 90:649–652
Chua CC, Hamdy RC, Chua BH (2000) Mechanism of transforming growth factor-β1-induced expression of vascular endothelial growth factor in murine osteoblastic MC3T3-E1 cells. Biochim Biophys Acta 1497:69–76
Ehrlich HP, Desmouliere A, Diegelmann RF, Cohen IK, Compton CC, Garner WL, Kapanci Y, Gabbiani G (1994) Morphological and immunochemical differences between keloid and hypertrophic scar. Am J Pathol 145:105–113
English RS, Shenefelt PD (1999) Keloids and hypertrophic scars. Dermatol Surg 25:631–638
Estrem SA, Domayer M, Bardach J, Cram AE (1987) Implantation of human keloid into athymic mice. Laryngoscope 97:1214–1218
Fajardo LF, Prionas SD, Kwan HH, Kowalski J, Allison AC (1996) Transforming growth factor β1 induces angiogenesis in vivo with a threshold pattern. Lab Invest 74:600–608
Ferrara N, Gerber HP, LeCouter J (2003) The biology of VEGF and its receptors. Nat Med 9:669–676
Gajdusek CM, Luo Z, Mayberg MR (1993) Basic fibroblast growth factor and transforming growth factor beta-1: synergistic mediators of angiogenesis in vitro. J Cell Physiol 157:133–144
Gira AK, Brown LF, Washington CV, Cohen C, Arbiser JL (2004) Keloids demonstrate high-level epidermal expression of vascular endothelial growth factor. J Am Acad Dermatol 50:850–853
Goumans MJ, Valdimarsdottir G, Itoh S, Rosendahl A, Sideras P, ten Dijke P (2002) Balancing the activation state of the endothelium via two distinct TGF-β type I receptors. EMBO J 21:1743–1753
Hicklin DJ, Ellis LM (2005) Role of the vascular endothelial growth factor pathway in tumor growth and angiogenesis. J Clin Oncol 23:1011–1027
Hoeben A, Landuyt B, Highley MS, Wildiers H, Van Oosterom AT, De Bruijn EA (2004) Vascular endothelial growth factor and angiogenesis. Pharmacol Rev 56:549–580
Jain RK (2003) Molecular regulation of vessel maturation. Nat Med 9:685–693
Kischer CW, Thies AC, Chvapil M (1982) Perivascular myofibroblasts and microvascular occlusion in hypertrophic scars and keloids. Hum Pathol 13:819–824
Kischer CW, Pindur J, Shetlar MR, Shetlar CL (1989) Implants of hypertrophic scars and keloids into the nude (athymic) mouse: viability and morphology. J Trauma 29:672–677
Kischer CW (1992) The microvessels in hypertrophic scars, keloids and related lesions: a review. J Submicrosc Cytol Pathol 24:281–296
Le AD, Zhang Q, Wu Y, Messadi DV, Akhondzadeh A, Nguyen AL, Aghaloo TL, Kelly AP, Bertolami CN (2004) Elevated vascular endothelial growth factor in keloids: relevance to tissue fibrosis. Cells Tissues Organs 176:87–94
Lee TY, Chin GS, Kim WJ, Chau D, Gittes GK, Longaker MT (1999) Expression of transforming growth factor beta 1, 2, and 3 proteins in keloids. Ann Plast Surg 43:179–184
Miyata M, Biro S, Kaieda H, Eto H, Orihara K, Kihara T, Obata H, Matsushita N, Matsuyama T, Tei C (2001) Apolipoprotein J/clusterin is induced in vascular smooth muscle cells after vascular injury. Circulation 104:1407–1412
Niessen FB, Spauwen PH, Schalkwijk J, Kon M (1999) On the nature of hypertrophic scars and keloids: a review. Plast Reconstr Surg 104:1435–1458
Pepper MS, Vassalli JD, Orci L, Montesano R (1993) Biphasic effect of transforming growth factor-β1 on in vitro angiogenesis. Exp Cell Res 204:356–363
Peltonen J, Hsiao LL, Jaakkola S, Sollberg S, Aumailley M, Timpl R, Chu ML, Uitto J (1991) Activation of collagen gene expression in keloids: co-localization of type I and VI collagen and transforming growth factor-β1 mRNA. J Invest Dermatol 97:240–248
Pertovaara L, Kaipainen A, Mustonen T, Orpana A, Ferrara N, Saksela O, Alitalo K (1994) Vascular endothelial growth factor is induced in response to transforming growth factor-β in fibroblastic and epithelial cells. J Biol Chem 269:6271–6274
Polo M, Kim YJ, Kucukcelebi A, Hayward PG, Ko F, Robson MC (1998) An in vivo model of human proliferative scar. J Surg Res 74:187–195
Rahban SR, Garner WL (2003) Fibroproliferative scars. Clin Plast Surg 30:77–89
Renner U, Lohrer P, Schaaf L, Feirer M, Schmitt K, Onofri C, Arzt E, Stalla GK (2002) Transforming growth factor-β stimulates vascular endothelial growth factor production by folliculostellate pituitary cells. Endocrinology 143:3759–3765
Roberts AB, Sporn MB, Assoian RK, Smith JM, Roche NS, Wakefield LM, Heine UI, Liotta LA, Falanga V, Kehrl JH, Fauci AS (1986) Transforming growth factor type β: rapid induction of fibrosis and angiogenesis in vivo and stimulation of collagen formation in vitro. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 83:4167–4171
Saadeh PB, Mehrara BJ, Steinbrech DS, Dudziak ME, Greenwald JA, Luchs JS, Spector JA, Ueno H, Gittes GK, Longaker MT (1999) Transforming growth factor-β1 modulates the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor by osteoblasts. Am J Physiol 277:C628–C637
Schierle HP, Scholz D, Lemperle G (1997) Elevated levels of testosterone receptors in keloid tissue: an experimental investigation. Plast Reconstr Surg 100:390–395
Steinbrech DS, Mehrara BJ, Chau D, Rowe NM, Chin G, Lee T, Saadeh PB, Gittes GK, Longaker MT (1999) Hypoxia upregulates VEGF production in keloid fibroblasts. Ann Plast Surg 42:514–519
Tuan TL, Nichter LS (1998) The molecular basis of keloid and hypertrophic scar formation. Mol Med Today 4:19–24
Vladutiu AO (1993) The severe combined immunodeficient (SCID) mouse as a model for the study of autoimmune diseases. Clin Exp Immunol 93:1–8
Wahid S, Blades MC, De Lord D, Brown I, Blake G, Yanni G, Haskard DO, Panayi GS, Pitzalis C (2000) Tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) enhances lymphocyte migration into rheumatoid synovial tissue transplanted into severe combined immunodeficient (SCID) mice. Clin Exp Immunol 122:133–142
Wang X, Smith P, Pu LL, Kim YJ, Ko F, Robson MC (1999) Exogenous transforming growth factor β2 modulates collagen I and collagen III synthesis in proliferative scar xenografts in nude rats. J Surg Res 87:194–200
Wu Y, Zhang Q, Ann DK, Akhondzadeh A, Duong HS, Messadi DV, Le AD (2003) Increased vascular endothelial growth factor may account for an elevated level of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 via activating ERK1/2 in keloid fibroblasts. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 286:905–912
Xia W, Phan TT, Lim IJ, Longaker MT, Yang GP (2004) Complex epithelial-mesenchymal interactions modulate transforming growth factor-β expression in keloid-derived cells. Wound Repair Regen 12:546–556
Yoshimoto H, Ishihara H, Ohtsuru A, Akino K, Murakami R, Kuroda H, Namba H, Ito M, Fujii T, Yamashita S (1999) Overexpression of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-I) receptor and the invasiveness of cultured keloid fibroblasts. Am J Pathol 154:883–889
Zhang Q, Wu Y, Ann DK, Messadi DV, Tuan TL, Kelly AP, Bertolami CN, Le AD (2003) Mechanisms of hypoxic regulation of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 gene expression in keloid fibroblasts. J Invest Dermatol 121:1005–1012
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Fujiwara, M., Muragaki, Y. & Ooshima, A. Upregulation of transforming growth factor-β1 and vascular endothelial growth factor in cultured keloid fibroblasts: relevance to angiogenic activity. Arch Dermatol Res 297, 161–169 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00403-005-0596-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00403-005-0596-2