Skip to main content
Springer Nature Link
Log in

Behavioral Traits and Airport Type Affect Mammal Incidents with U.S. Civil Aircraft

  • Published:
Environmental Management Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Wildlife incidents with aircraft cost the United States (U.S.) civil aviation industry >US$1.4 billion in estimated damages and loss of revenue from 1990 to 2009. Although terrestrial mammals represented only 2.3 % of wildlife incidents, damage to aircraft occurred in 59 % of mammal incidents. We examined mammal incidents (excluding bats) at all airports in the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) National Wildlife Strike Database from 1990 to 2010 to characterize these incidents by airport type: Part-139 certified (certificated) and general aviation (GA). We also calculated relative hazard scores for species most frequently involved in incidents. We found certificated airports had more than twice as many incidents as GA airports. Incidents were most frequent in October (n = 215 of 1,764 total) at certificated airports and November (n = 111 of 741 total) at GA airports. Most (63.2 %) incidents at all airports (n = 1,523) occurred at night but the greatest incident rate occurred at dusk (177.3 incidents/hr). More incidents with damage (n = 1,594) occurred at GA airports (38.6 %) than certificated airports (19.0 %). Artiodactyla (even-toed ungulates) incidents incurred greatest (92.4 %) damage costs (n = 326; US$51.8 million) overall and mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) was the most hazardous species. Overall, relative hazard score increased with increasing log body mass. Frequency of incidents was influenced by species relative seasonal abundance and behavior. We recommend airport wildlife officials evaluate the risks mammal species pose to aircraft based on the hazard information we provide and consider prioritizing management strategies that emphasize reducing their occurrence on airport property.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
$34.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8

Similar content being viewed by others

Explore related subjects

Discover the latest articles and news from researchers in related subjects, suggested using machine learning.

References

  • Armitage KB (2003) Marmots (Marmota monac and allies). In: Feldhamer GA, Thompson BC, Chapman JA (eds) Mammals of North America: biology, management and conservation, 2nd edn. Johns Hopkins University Press, Maryland, pp 188–210

    Google Scholar 

  • Baker RJ, Bradley LC, Bradley RD, Dragoo JW, Engstrom MD, Hoffmann RS, Jones CA, Reid F, Rice DW, Jones C (2003) Revised checklist of North American mammals north of Mexico. Occasional Papers, Museum of Texas Tech University 229:1–23

    Google Scholar 

  • Bekoff M, Gese EM (2003) Coyote (Canis latrans). In: Feldhamer GA, Thompson BC, Chapman JA (eds) Mammals of North America: biology, management and conservation, 2nd edn. Johns Hopkins University Press, Maryland, pp 468–481

    Google Scholar 

  • Belant JL, Seamans TW, Dwyer CP (1996) Evaluation of propane exploders as white-tailed deer deterrents. Crop Protection 15:575–578

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Belant JL, Seamans TW, Dwyer CP (1998) Cattle guards reduce white-tailed deer crossings through fence openings. International Journal of Pest Management 44:247–249

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Biondi KM, Belant JL, Martin JA, DeVault TL, Wang G (2011) White-tailed deer incidents with U.S. civil aircraft. Wildl Soc Bull 35:303–309

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Biondi KM, Belant JL, Martin JA, DeVault TL, Wang G (2013) Bat incidents with U.S. civil aircraft. Acta Chiropterologica 15:185–192

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bissonette J, Kassar CA, Cook LJ (2008) Assessment of costs associated with deer–vehicle collisions: human death and injury, vehicle damage, and deer loss. Human-Wildlife Conflicts 2:17–27

    Google Scholar 

  • Blackwell BF, Seamans TW (2009) Enhancing the perceived threat of vehicle approach to deer. Journal of Wildlife Management 73:128–135

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bomford M, O’Brien PH (1990) Sonic deterrents in animal damage control: a review of device tests and effectiveness. Wildl Soc Bull 18:411–422

    Google Scholar 

  • Cleary EC, Dickey A (2010) Guidebook for addressing aircraft/wildlife hazards at general aviation airports. In: Airport Cooperative Research Program Report 32. Washington, DC

  • Cleary EC, Dolbeer RA (2005) Wildlife hazard management at airports, a manual for airport personnel. United States Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Office of Airport Safety and Standards. Washington, DC

  • Conover MR (2002) Resolving human-wildlife conflicts: the science of wildlife damage management. Lewis Publishers, Florida

    Google Scholar 

  • Craven SR, Hyngstrom SE (1994) Deer. In: Hyngstrom SE, Timm RM, Larson GE (eds) Prevention and control of wildlife damage. University of Nebraska Cooperative Extension Service, Nebraska, pp D25–D40

    Google Scholar 

  • Cypher BL (2003) Foxes (Vulpes species, Urocyon species, and Alopex lagopus). In: Feldhamer GA, Thompson BC, Chapman JA (eds) Mammals of North America: biology, management and conservation, 2nd edn. Johns Hopkins University Press, Maryland, pp 511–546

    Google Scholar 

  • D’Angelo GJ, De Chicchis AR, Osborn DA, Gallagher GR, Warren RJ, Miller KV (2007) Hearing range of white-tailed deer as determined by auditory brainstem response. Journal Wildlife Management 71:1238–1242

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeNicola AJ, Williams SC (2008) Sharpshooting suburban white-tailed deer reduces deer–vehicle collisions. Human-Wildlife Conflicts 2:28–33

    Google Scholar 

  • DeVault TL, Kubel JE, Glista DJ, Rhodes OE (2008) Mammalian hazards at small airports in Indiana: impact of perimeter fencing. Human-Wildlife Conflicts 2:240–247

    Google Scholar 

  • DeVault TL, Belant JL, Blackwell BF, Seamans TW (2011) Interspecific variation in wildlife hazards to aircraft: implications for airport wildlife management. Wildl Soc Bull 35:394–402

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dolbeer RA (2006) Height distributions of birds recorded by collision with civil aircraft. Journal Wildlife Management 70:1345–1350

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dolbeer RA (2009) Wildlife strike reporting, part 2–sources of data in voluntary system. U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration Report DOT/FAA/AR-09/63. Washington, DC

  • Dolbeer RA, Wright SE (2009) Safety management systems: how useful will the FAA National Wildlife Strike Database be? Human-Wildlife Conflicts 3:167–178

    Google Scholar 

  • Dolbeer RA, Wright SE, Cleary EC (2000) Ranking the hazard level of wildlife species to aviation. Wildl Soc Bull 28:372–378

    Google Scholar 

  • Dolbeer RA, Begier MJ, Wright SE (2008) Animal ambush: the challenge of managing wildlife hazards at general aviation airports. Proceedings of Corporate Aviation Safety Seminar 53:1–17

    Google Scholar 

  • Dolbeer RA, Wright SE, Weller J, Begier MJ (2012) Wildlife strikes to civil aircraft in the United States 1990–2010. U.S Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Office of Airport Safety and Standards, Serial Report n. 17. Washington, DC

  • Dussault C, Poulin M, Courtois R, Ouellet J (2006) Temporal and spatial distribution of moose-vehicle accidents in the Laurentides Wildlife Reserve, Quebec, Canada. Wildlife Biology 12:415–425

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) (2004) Deer hazard to aircraft and deer fencing. U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, CertAlert 04-16 Washington, DC

  • Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) (2010) FAA airport data. FAA airport facilities data report. http://www.faa.gov/airports/airport_safety/airportdata_5010/. Accessed 1 Nov 2010

  • Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) (2012a) Part 139 Airport Certification. http://www.faa.gov/airports/airport_safety/part139_cert/. Accessed 27 Feb 2012

  • Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) (2012b) FAA summary data. APO TAF quick data summary report. http://aspm.faa.gov/main/taf.asp. Accessed 20 Feb 2012

  • Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) (2012c) FAA air traffic activity system. http://aspm.faa.gov/opsnet/sys/Airport.asp. Accessed 28 Feb 2012

  • Feldhamer GA, Thompson BC, Chapman JA (eds) (2003) Mammals of North America: biology, management and conservation, 2nd edn. Johns Hopkins University Press, Maryland

    Google Scholar 

  • Flinders JT, Chapman JA (2003) Black-tailed jackrabbit (Lepus californicus and allies). In: Feldhamer GA, Thompson BC, Chapman JA (eds) Mammals of North America: biology, management and conservation, 2nd edn. Johns Hopkins University Press, Maryland, pp 126–146

    Google Scholar 

  • Gardner AL, Sunquist ME (2003) Opossum (Didelphis virginiana). In: Feldhamer GA, Thompson BC, Chapman JA (eds) Mammals of North America: biology, management and conservation, 2nd edn. Johns Hopkins University Press, Maryland, pp 3–29

    Google Scholar 

  • Gehrt SD (2003) Raccoon (Procyon lotor and allies). In: Feldhamer GA, Thompson BC, Chapman JA (eds) Mammals of North America: biology, management and conservation, 2nd edn. Johns Hopkins University Press, Maryland, pp 611–634

    Google Scholar 

  • Grilo C, Bissontte JA, Santos-Reis M (2009) Spatial–temporal patterns in Mediterranean carnivore road casualties: consequences for mitigation. Biol Conserv 142:301–313

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haikonen H, Summala H (2001) Deer–vehicle crashes: extensive peak at 1 hour after sunset. American Journal of Preventative Medicine 21:209–213

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes WE, Saremi AR, Paniati JF (1996) Vehicle–animal crashes: an increasing safety problem. Institute of Transportation Engineers Journal 66:24–28

    Google Scholar 

  • Inbar M, Mayer RT (1999) Spatio–temporal trends in armadillo diurnal activity and road–kills in central Florida. Wildl Soc Bull 27:865–872

    Google Scholar 

  • International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) (2009) Managing wildlife hazards to aircraft. Meeting of Directors of Civil Aviation of the Central Caribbean 10:1–5

    Google Scholar 

  • Ishmael WE, Rongstad OJ (1984) Economics of an urban deer removal program. Wildl Soc Bull 12:394–398

    Google Scholar 

  • Iverson AL, Iverson LR (1999) Spatial and temporal trends of deer harvest and deer-vehicle collisions in Ohio. Ohio Journal of Science 99:84–94

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones JM, Witham JH (1990) Post-translocation survival and movements of metropolitan white-tailed deer. Wildl Soc Bull 18:434–441

    Google Scholar 

  • Joyce TL, Mahoney SP (2001) Spatial and temporal distributions of moose-vehicle collisions in Newfoundland. Wildl Soc Bull 29:281–291

    Google Scholar 

  • Klöcker U, Croft DB, Ramp D (2006) Frequency and causes of kangaroo–vehicle collisions on an Australian outback highway. Wildlife Research 33:5–15

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Langley RL, Mathison J (2008) Worldwide characteristics and mitigation strategies for motor vehicle–animal collision. In Bartley GP, (ed) Traffic accidents: causes and outcomes. Nova Science Pub Inc., New York, p 75–96

  • Mastro LL, Conover MR, Frey SN (2010) Factors influencing a motorist’s ability to detect deer at night. Landscape and Urban Planning 94:250–254

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller KV, Muller LI, Demarais S (2003) White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). In: Feldhamer GA, Thompson BC, Chapman JA (eds) Mammals of North America: biology, management and conservation, 2nd edn. Johns Hopkins University Press, Maryland, pp 906–930

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Bryan MK, McCullough DR (1985) Survival of black-tailed deer following relocation in California. Journal of Wildlife Management 49:115–119

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pauley GR, Peek JM, Zager P (1993) Predicting white-tailed deer habitat use in northern Idaho. Journal of Wildlife Management 57:904–913

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosatte R, Larivière S (2003) Skunks (Genera Mephitis, Spilogale, and Conepatus). In: Feldhamer GA, Thompson BC, Chapman JA (eds) Mammals of North America: biology, management and conservation, 2nd edn. Johns Hopkins University Press, Maryland, pp 692–707

    Google Scholar 

  • Seamans TW, Helon DA (2008) Evaluation of an electrified mat as a white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) barrier. International Journal of Pest Management 54:89–94

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seamans TW, VerCauteren KC (2006) Evaluation of ElectroBraid™ fencing as a white-tailed deer barrier. Wildl Soc Bull 34:8–15

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • VerCauteren KC, Lavelle MJ, Hygnstrom S (2006) Fences and deer-damage management: a review of designs and efficacy. Wildl Soc Bull 34:191–200

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • VerCauteren KC, Vandeelen TR, Lavelle MJ, Hall WH (2010) Assessment of abilities of white-tailed deer to jump fences. Journal of Wildlife Management 74:1378–1381

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whitaker JO, Hamilton WJ (1998) Mammals of the eastern United States, 3rd edn. Cornell University Press, New York

  • Wright SE, Dolbeer RA, Montoney AJ (1998) Deer on airports: an accident waiting to happen. Proceeding of Vertebrate Pest Conference 18:90–95

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

Our work was supported by the Department of Wildlife, Fisheries, and Aquaculture and Forest and Wildlife Research Center at Mississippi State University; United States Department of Agriculture; and the FAA under agreement DTFACT-04-X-90003. Opinions expressed in this study do not necessarily reflect current FAA policy decisions regarding the control of wildlife on or near airports.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Wildlife, Fisheries, and Aquaculture, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS, 39762, USA

    Kristin B. Schwarz & Guiming Wang

  2. Carnivore Ecology Laboratory, Forest and Wildlife Research Center, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS, 39762, USA

    Jerrold L. Belant

  3. Agricultural Ecology and Carnivore Ecology Labs, Forest and Wildlife Research Center, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS, 39762, USA

    James A. Martin

  4. USDA, APHIS, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Research Center, Ohio Field Station, 6100 Columbus Avenue, Sandusky, OH, 44870, USA

    Travis L. DeVault

  5. 1139 Marie Street, Tupelo, MS, USA

    Kristin B. Schwarz

Authors
  1. Kristin B. Schwarz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author inPubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jerrold L. Belant
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author inPubMed Google Scholar

  3. James A. Martin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author inPubMed Google Scholar

  4. Travis L. DeVault
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author inPubMed Google Scholar

  5. Guiming Wang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author inPubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kristin B. Schwarz.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Schwarz, K.B., Belant, J.L., Martin, J.A. et al. Behavioral Traits and Airport Type Affect Mammal Incidents with U.S. Civil Aircraft. Environmental Management 54, 908–918 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-014-0345-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-014-0345-4

Keywords