Abstract
Known for years as the principal messengers of the immune system, dendritic cells (DC) represent a heterogeneous population of antigen presenting cells critically located at the nexus between innate and adaptive immunity. DC play a central role in the initiation of tumor-specific immune responses as they are endowed with the unique ability to take up, process and present tumor antigens to naïve CD4+ or CD8+ effector T lymphocytes. By virtue of the cytokines they produce, DC also regulate the type, strength and duration of T cell immune responses. In addition, they can participate in anti-tumoral NK and NKT cell activation and in the orchestration of humoral immunity. More recent studies have documented that besides their primary role in the induction and regulation of adaptive anti-tumoral immune responses, DC are also endowed with the capacity to directly kill cancer cells. This dual role of DC as killers and messengers may have important implications for tumor immunotherapy. First, the direct killing of malignant cells by DC may foster the release and thereby the immediate availability of specific tumor antigens for presentation to cytotoxic or helper T lymphocytes. Second, DC may participate in the effector phase of the immune response, potentially augmenting the diversity of the killing mechanisms leading to tumor elimination. This review focuses on this non-conventional cytotoxic function of DC as it relates to the promotion of cancer immunity and discusses the potential application of killer DC (KDC) in tumor immunotherapy.

Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adema GJ (2009) Dendritic cells from bench to bedside and back. Immunol Lett 122:128–130
Melief CJ (2008) Cancer immunotherapy by dendritic cells. Immunity 29:372–383
Ueno H, Klechevsky E, Morita R et al (2007) Dendritic cell subsets in health and disease. Immunol Rev 219:118–142
Banchereau J, Briere F, Caux C et al (2000) Immunobiology of dendritic cells. Annu Rev Immunol 18:767–811
Dubsky P, Ueno H, Piqueras B et al (2005) Human dendritic cell subsets for vaccination. J Clin Immunol 25:551–572
Banchereau J, Steinman RM (1998) Dendritic cells and the control of immunity. Nature 392:245–252
Pulendran B, Smith JL, Caspary G et al (1999) Distinct dendritic cell subsets differentially regulate the class of immune response in vivo. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:1036–1041
Kimura A, Naka T, Kishimoto T (2007) IL-6-dependent and -independent pathways in the development of interleukin 17-producing T helper cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104:12099–12104
Jego G, Palucka AK, Blanck JP et al (2003) Plasmacytoid dendritic cells induce plasma cell differentiation through type I interferon and interleukin 6. Immunity 19:225–234
Batista FD, Harwood NE (2009) The who, how and where of antigen presentation to B cells. Nat Rev Immunol 9:15–27
Walzer T, Dalod M, Robbins SH et al (2005) Natural-killer cells and dendritic cells: “l’union fait la force”. Blood 106:2252–2258
Fujii S, Shimizu K, Hemmi H et al (2007) Innate Valpha14(+) natural killer T cells mature dendritic cells, leading to strong adaptive immunity. Immunol Rev 220:183–198
Steinbrink K, Jonuleit H, Muller G et al (1999) Interleukin-10-treated human dendritic cells induce a melanoma-antigen-specific anergy in CD8(+) T cells resulting in a failure to lyse tumor cells. Blood 93:1634–1642
Gabrilovich D (2004) Mechanisms and functional significance of tumour-induced dendritic-cell defects. Nat Rev Immunol 4:941–952
Monti P, Leone BE, Zerbi A et al (2004) Tumor-derived MUC1 mucins interact with differentiating monocytes and induce IL-10 high IL-12 low regulatory dendritic cell. J Immunol 172:7341–7349
Ohnmacht C, Pullner A, King SB et al (2009) Constitutive ablation of dendritic cells breaks self-tolerance of CD4 T cells and results in spontaneous fatal autoimmunity. J Exp Med 206:549–559
Jonuleit H, Schmitt E, Schuler G et al (2000) Induction of interleukin 10-producing, nonproliferating CD4(+) T cells with regulatory properties by repetitive stimulation with allogeneic immature human dendritic cells. J Exp Med 192:1213–1222
Steinman RM, Hawiger D, Liu K et al (2003) Dendritic cell function in vivo during the steady state: a role in peripheral tolerance. Ann N Y Acad Sci 987:15–25
Tuettenberg A, Huter E, Hubo M et al (2009) The role of ICOS in directing T cell responses: ICOS-dependent induction of T cell anergy by tolerogenic dendritic cells. J Immunol 182:3349–3356
Banerjee DK, Dhodapkar MV, Matayeva E et al (2006) Expansion of FOXP3 high regulatory T cells by human dendritic cells (DCs) in vitro and after injection of cytokine-matured DCs in myeloma patients. Blood 108:2655–2661
Yamazaki S, Steinman RM (2009) Dendritic cells as controllers of antigen-specific Foxp3+ regulatory T cells. J Dermatol Sci 54:69–75
Belkaid Y, Oldenhove G (2008) Tuning microenvironments: induction of regulatory T cells by dendritic cells. Immunity 29:362–371
Roncarolo MG, Gregori S, Battaglia M et al (2006) Interleukin-10-secreting type 1 regulatory T cells in rodents and humans. Immunol Rev 212:28–50
Chan CW, Housseau F (2008) The ‘kiss of death’ by dendritic cells to cancer cells. Cell Death Differ 15:58–69
Ullrich E, Chaput N, Zitvogel L (2008) Killer dendritic cells and their potential role in immunotherapy. Horm Metab Res 40:75–81
Larmonier N, Billerey C, Rebe C et al (2002) An atypical caspase-independent death pathway for an immunogenic cancer cell line. Oncogene 21:6091–6100
Dunn GP, Old LJ, Schreiber RD (2004) The immunobiology of cancer immunosurveillance and immunoediting. Immunity 21:137–148
Kepp O, Tesniere A, Zitvogel L et al (2009) The immunogenicity of tumor cell death. Curr Opin Oncol 21:71–76
Bonnotte B, Larmonier N, Favre N et al (2001) Identification of tumor-infiltrating macrophages as the killers of tumor cells after immunization in a rat model system. J Immunol 167:5077–5083
Zitvogel L, Tesniere A, Kroemer G (2006) Cancer despite immunosurveillance: immunoselection and immunosubversion. Nat Rev Immunol 6:715–727
Shimizu K, Kurosawa Y, Taniguchi M et al (2007) Cross-presentation of glycolipid from tumor cells loaded with alpha-galactosylceramide leads to potent and long-lived T cell mediated immunity via dendritic cells. J Exp Med 204:2641–2653
Gilboa E, Nair SK, Lyerly HK (1998) Immunotherapy of cancer with dendritic-cell-based vaccines. Cancer Immunol Immunother 46:82–87
Nestle FO, Farkas A, Conrad C (2005) Dendritic-cell-based therapeutic vaccination against cancer. Curr Opin Immunol 17:163–169
Palucka AK, Laupeze B, Aspord C et al (2005) Immunotherapy via dendritic cells. Adv Exp Med Biol 560:105–114
Mayordomo JI, Zorina T, Storkus WJ et al (1995) Bone marrow-derived dendritic cells pulsed with synthetic tumour peptides elicit protective and therapeutic antitumour immunity. Nat Med 1:1297–1302
Shimizu J, Suda T, Yoshioka T et al (1989) Induction of tumor-specific in vivo protective immunity by immunization with tumor antigen-pulsed antigen-presenting cells. J Immunol 142:1053–1059
Larmonier N, Cantrell J, Lacasse C et al (2008) Chaperone-rich tumor cell lysate-mediated activation of antigen-presenting cells resists regulatory T cell suppression. J Leukoc Biol 83:1049–1059
Larmonier N, Janikashvili N, LaCasse CJ et al (2008) Imatinib mesylate inhibits CD4+ CD25+ regulatory T cell activity and enhances active immunotherapy against BCR-ABL-tumors. J Immunol 181:6955–6963
Larmonier N, Merino D, Nicolas A et al (2006) Apoptotic, necrotic, or fused tumor cells: an equivalent source of antigen for dendritic cell loading. Apoptosis 11:1513–1524
Bonmort M, Dalod M, Mignot G et al (2008) Killer dendritic cells: IKDC and the others. Curr Opin Immunol 20:558–565
Wesa AK, Storkus WJ (2008) Killer dendritic cells: mechanisms of action and therapeutic implications for cancer. Cell Death Differ 15:51–57
Chauvin C, Josien R (2008) Dendritic cells as killers: mechanistic aspects and potential roles. J Immunol 181:11–16
Suss G, Shortman K (1996) A subclass of dendritic cells kills CD4 T cells via Fas/Fas-ligand-induced apoptosis. J Exp Med 183:1789–1796
Shibaki A, Katz SI (2001) Activation through CD40 ligation induces functional Fas ligand expression by Langerhans cells. Eur J Immunol 31:3006–3015
Serbina NV, Salazar-Mather TP, Biron CA et al (2003) TNF/iNOS-producing dendritic cells mediate innate immune defense against bacterial infection. Immunity 19:59–70
Caminschi I, Ahmet F, Heger K et al (2007) Putative IKDCs are functionally and developmentally similar to natural killer cells, but not to dendritic cells. J Exp Med 204:2579–2590
Shortman K, Villadangos JA (2006) Is it a DC, is it an NK? No, it’s an IKDC. Nat Med 12:167–168
Vremec D, O’Keeffe M, Hochrein H et al (2007) Production of interferons by dendritic cells, plasmacytoid cells, natural killer cells, and interferon-producing killer dendritic cells. Blood 109:1165–1173
Chan CW, Crafton E, Fan HN et al (2006) Interferon-producing killer dendritic cells provide a link between innate and adaptive immunity. Nat Med 12:207–213
Chaudhry UI, Katz SC, Kingham TP et al (2006) In vivo overexpression of Flt3 ligand expands and activates murine spleen natural killer dendritic cells. FASEB J 20:982–984
Homann D, Jahreis A, Wolfe T et al (2002) CD40L blockade prevents autoimmune diabetes by induction of bitypic NK/DC regulatory cells. Immunity 16:403–415
Mignot G, Ullrich E, Bonmort M et al (2008) The critical role of IL-15 in the antitumor effects mediated by the combination therapy imatinib and IL-2. J Immunol 180:6477–6483
Pillarisetty VG, Katz SC, Bleier JI et al (2005) Natural killer dendritic cells have both antigen presenting and lytic function and in response to CpG produce IFN-gamma via autocrine IL-12. J Immunol 174:2612–2618
Taieb J, Chaput N, Menard C et al (2006) A novel dendritic cell subset involved in tumor immunosurveillance. Nat Med 12:214–219
Vosshenrich CA, Lesjean-Pottier S, Hasan M et al (2007) CD11cloB220+ interferon-producing killer dendritic cells are activated natural killer cells. J Exp Med 204:2569–2578
Guimont-Desrochers F, Cappello ZJ, Chagnon M et al (2009) Cutting edge: genetic characterization of IFN-producing killer dendritic cells. J Immunol 182:5193–5197
Chaudhry UI, Kingham TP, Plitas G et al (2006) Combined stimulation with interleukin-18 and CpG induces murine natural killer dendritic cells to produce IFN-gamma and inhibit tumor growth. Cancer Res 66:10497–10504
Chaudhry UI, Plitas G, Burt BM et al (2007) NK dendritic cells expanded in IL-15 exhibit antitumor responses in vivo. J Immunol 179:4654–4660
Plitas G, Chaudhry UI, Kingham TP et al (2007) NK dendritic cells are innate immune responders to Listeria monocytogenes infection. J Immunol 178:4411–4416
Ullrich E, Bonmort M, Mignot G et al (2008) Trans-presentation of IL-15 dictates IFN-producing killer dendritic cells effector functions. J Immunol 180:7887–7897
Zitvogel L, Mignot G, Bonmort M et al (2008) IKDC: killer dendritic cells or antigen-presenting NK cells? Med Sci (Paris) 24:525–528
Bonmort M, Ullrich E, Mignot G et al (2007) Interferon-gamma is produced by another player of innate immune responses: the interferon-producing killer dendritic cell (IKDC). Biochimie 89:872–877
Ullrich E, Bonmort M, Mignot G et al (2007) Therapy-induced tumor immunosurveillance involves IFN-producing killer dendritic cells. Cancer Res 67:851–853
Himoudi N, Nabarro S, Buddle J et al (2008) Bone marrow-derived IFN-producing killer dendritic cells account for the tumoricidal activity of unpulsed dendritic cells. J Immunol 181:6654–6663
Jiang Q, Wei H, Tian Z (2008) IFN-producing killer dendritic cells contribute to the inhibitory effect of poly I:C on the progression of murine melanoma. J Immunother 31:555–562
Spits H, Lanier LL (2007) Natural killer or dendritic: what’s in a name? Immunity 26:11–16
Blasius AL, Barchet W, Cella M et al (2007) Development and function of murine B220+ CD11c+ NK1.1+ cells identify them as a subset of NK cells. J Exp Med 204:2561–2568
Josien R, Heslan M, Soulillou JP et al (1997) Rat spleen dendritic cells express natural killer cell receptor protein 1 (NKR-P1) and have cytotoxic activity to select targets via a Ca2+-dependent mechanism. J Exp Med 186:467–472
Chauvin C, Philippeau JM, Hemont C et al (2008) Killer dendritic cells link innate and adaptive immunity against established osteosarcoma in rats. Cancer Res 68:9433–9440
Trinite B, Chauvin C, Peche H et al (2005) Immature CD4-CD103+ rat dendritic cells induce rapid caspase-independent apoptosis-like cell death in various tumor and nontumor cells and phagocytose their victims. J Immunol 175:2408–2417
Trinite B, Voisine C, Yagita H et al (2000) A subset of cytolytic dendritic cells in rat. J Immunol 165:4202–4208
Alli R, Savithri B, Das S et al (2004) Involvement of NKR-P2/NKG2D in DC-mediated killing of tumor targets: indicative of a common, innate, target-recognition paradigm? Eur J Immunol 34:1119–1126
Srivastava RM, Varalakshmi C, Khar A (2007) Cross-linking a mAb to NKR-P2/NKG2D on dendritic cells induces their activation and maturation leading to enhanced anti-tumor immune response. Int Immunol 19:591–607
Hardy AW, Graham DR, Shearer GM et al (2007) HIV turns plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC) into TRAIL-expressing killer pDC and down-regulates HIV coreceptors by Toll-like receptor 7-induced IFN-alpha. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104:17453–17458
Chaperot L, Blum A, Manches O et al (2006) Virus or TLR agonists induce TRAIL-mediated cytotoxic activity of plasmacytoid dendritic cells. J Immunol 176:248–255
Fanger NA, Maliszewski CR, Schooley K et al (1999) Human dendritic cells mediate cellular apoptosis via tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL). J Exp Med 190:1155–1164
Janjic BM, Lu G, Pimenov A et al (2002) Innate direct anticancer effector function of human immature dendritic cells. I. Involvement of an apoptosis-inducing pathway. J Immunol 168:1823–1830
Lu G, Janjic BM, Janjic J et al (2002) Innate direct anticancer effector function of human immature dendritic cells. II. Role of TNF, lymphotoxin-alpha(1)beta(2), Fas ligand, and TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand. J Immunol 168:1831–1839
Manna PP, Mohanakumar T (2002) Human dendritic cell mediated cytotoxicity against breast carcinoma cells in vitro. J Leukoc Biol 72:312–320
Stary G, Bangert C, Tauber M et al (2007) Tumoricidal activity of TLR7/8-activated inflammatory dendritic cells. J Exp Med 204:1441–1451
Schakel K, Mayer E, Federle C et al (1998) A novel dendritic cell population in human blood: one-step immunomagnetic isolation by a specific mAb (M-DC8) and in vitro priming of cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Eur J Immunol 28:4084–4093
Schakel K, Kannagi R, Kniep B et al (2002) 6-Sulfo LacNAc, a novel carbohydrate modification of PSGL-1, defines an inflammatory type of human dendritic cells. Immunity 17:289–301
Schmitz M, Zhao S, Schakel K et al (2002) Native human blood dendritic cells as potent effectors in antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity. Blood 100:1502–1504
Schmitz M, Zhao S, Deuse Y et al (2005) Tumoricidal potential of native blood dendritic cells: direct tumor cell killing and activation of NK cell-mediated cytotoxicity. J Immunol 174:4127–4134
De Panfilis G, Venturini M, Lavazza A et al (2003) The tolerogenic molecule CD95-L is expressed on the plasma membrane of human activated, but not resting, Langerhans’ cells. Exp Dermatol 12:692–699
Figdor CG, de Vries IJ, Lesterhuis WJ et al (2004) Dendritic cell immunotherapy: mapping the way. Nat Med 10:475–480
Inaba K, Inaba M, Romani N et al (1992) Generation of large numbers of dendritic cells from mouse bone marrow cultures supplemented with granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor. J Exp Med 176:1693–1702
Schreurs MW, Eggert AA, de Boer AJ et al (1999) Generation and functional characterization of mouse monocyte-derived dendritic cells. Eur J Immunol 29:2835–2841
Romani N, Gruner S, Brang D et al (1994) Proliferating dendritic cell progenitors in human blood. J Exp Med 180:83–93
Caux C, Vanbervliet B, Massacrier C et al (1996) CD34+ hematopoietic progenitors from human cord blood differentiate along two independent dendritic cell pathways in response to GM-CSF+TNF alpha. J Exp Med 184:695–706
Fay JW, Palucka AK, Paczesny S et al (2006) Long-term outcomes in patients with metastatic melanoma vaccinated with melanoma peptide-pulsed CD34(+) progenitor-derived dendritic cells. Cancer Immunol Immunother 55:1209–1218
Paczesny S, Banchereau J, Wittkowski KM et al (2004) Expansion of melanoma-specific cytolytic CD8+ T cell precursors in patients with metastatic melanoma vaccinated with CD34+ progenitor-derived dendritic cells. J Exp Med 199:1503–1511
Lu L, Qian S, Hershberger PA et al (1997) Fas ligand (CD95L) and B7 expression on dendritic cells provide counter-regulatory signals for T cell survival and proliferation. J Immunol 158:5676–5684
Huang J, Tatsumi T, Pizzoferrato E et al (2005) Nitric oxide sensitizes tumor cells to dendritic cell-mediated apoptosis, uptake, and cross-presentation. Cancer Res 65:8461–8470
Tatsumi T, Huang J, Gooding WE et al (2003) Intratumoral delivery of dendritic cells engineered to secrete both interleukin (IL)-12 and IL-18 effectively treats local and distant disease in association with broadly reactive Tc1-type immunity. Cancer Res 63:6378–6386
Shimamura H, Cumberland R, Hiroishi K et al (2002) Murine dendritic cell-induced tumor apoptosis is partially mediated by nitric oxide. J Immunother 25:226–234
Yu Y, Liu S, Wang W et al (2002) Involvement of tumour necrosis factor-alpha-related apoptosis-inducing ligand in enhanced cytotoxicity of lipopolysaccharide-stimulated dendritic cells to activated T cells. Immunology 106:308–315
Lu L, Qian S, Starzl TE et al (1997) Blocking of the B7-CD28 pathway increases the capacity of FasL+ (CD95L+) dendritic cells to kill alloactivated T cells. Adv Exp Med Biol 417:275–282
Nicolas A, Cathelin D, Larmonier N et al (2007) Dendritic cells trigger tumor cell death by a nitric oxide-dependent mechanism. J Immunol 179:812–818
Vanderheyde N, Aksoy E, Amraoui Z et al (2001) Tumoricidal activity of monocyte-derived dendritic cells: evidence for a caspase-8-dependent, Fas-associated death domain-independent mechanism. J Immunol 167:3565–3569
Vanderheyde N, Vandenabeele P, Goldman M et al (2004) Distinct mechanisms are involved in tumoristatic and tumoricidal activities of monocyte-derived dendritic cells. Immunol Lett 91:99–101
Liu S, Yu Y, Zhang M et al (2001) The involvement of TNF-alpha-related apoptosis-inducing ligand in the enhanced cytotoxicity of IFN-beta-stimulated human dendritic cells to tumor cells. J Immunol 166:5407–5415
Ayres FM, Narita M, Takahashi M et al (2004) Human dendritic cells mediate anti-tumor activity against hematopoietic tumor cells without direct contact and Fas/FasL killing pathway. Oncol Rep 11:1017–1023
Vidalain PO, Azocar O, Yagita H et al (2001) Cytotoxic activity of human dendritic cells is differentially regulated by double-stranded RNA and CD40 ligand. J Immunol 167:3765–3772
Joo HG, Fleming TP, Tanaka Y et al (2002) Human dendritic cells induce tumor-specific apoptosis by soluble factors. Int J Cancer 102:20–28
Chapoval AI, Tamada K, Chen L (2000) In vitro growth inhibition of a broad spectrum of tumor cell lines by activated human dendritic cells. Blood 95:2346–2351
Korthals M, Safaian N, Kronenwett R et al (2007) Monocyte derived dendritic cells generated by IFN-alpha acquire mature dendritic and natural killer cell properties as shown by gene expression analysis. J Transl Med 5:46
Hill KS, Errington F, Steele LP et al (2008) OK432-activated human dendritic cells kill tumor cells via CD40/CD40 ligand interactions. J Immunol 181:3108–3115
Griffith TS, Wiley SR, Kubin MZ et al (1999) Monocyte-mediated tumoricidal activity via the tumor necrosis factor-related cytokine, TRAIL. J Exp Med 189:1343–1354
Hirano A, Longo DL, Taub DD et al (1999) Inhibition of human breast carcinoma growth by a soluble recombinant human CD40 ligand. Blood 93:2999–3007
Yang R, Xu D, Zhang A et al (2001) Immature dendritic cells kill ovarian carcinoma cells by a FAS/FASL pathway, enabling them to sensitize tumor-specific CTLs. Int J Cancer 94:407–413
Shi J, Ikeda K, Fujii N et al (2005) Activated human umbilical cord blood dendritic cells kill tumor cells without damaging normal hematological progenitor cells. Cancer Sci 96:127–133
Gallucci S, Lolkema M, Matzinger P (1999) Natural adjuvants: endogenous activators of dendritic cells. Nat Med 5:1249–1255
Nestle FO, Alijagic S, Gilliet M et al (1998) Vaccination of melanoma patients with peptide- or tumor lysate-pulsed dendritic cells. Nat Med 4:328–332
Schuler G, Steinman RM (1997) Dendritic cells as adjuvants for immune-mediated resistance to tumors. J Exp Med 186:1183–1187
Steinman RM, Hawiger D, Nussenzweig MC (2003) Tolerogenic dendritic cells. Annu Rev Immunol 21:685–711
Aiello S, Noris M, Piccinini G et al (2000) Thymic dendritic cells express inducible nitric oxide synthase and generate nitric oxide in response to self- and alloantigens. J Immunol 164:4649–4658
Legge KL, Braciale TJ (2005) Lymph node dendritic cells control CD8+ T cell responses through regulated FasL expression. Immunity 23:649–659
Triozzi PL, Khurram R, Aldrich WA et al (2000) Intratumoral injection of dendritic cells derived in vitro in patients with metastatic cancer. Cancer 89:2646–2654
Sakaguchi S (2000) Regulatory T cells: key controllers of immunologic self-tolerance. Cell 101:455–458
Ghiringhelli F, Larmonier N, Schmitt E et al (2004) CD4+ CD25+ regulatory T cells suppress tumor immunity but are sensitive to cyclophosphamide which allows immunotherapy of established tumors to be curative. Eur J Immunol 34:336–344
Liyanage UK, Moore TT, Joo HG et al (2002) Prevalence of regulatory T cells is increased in peripheral blood and tumor microenvironment of patients with pancreas or breast adenocarcinoma. J Immunol 169:2756–2761
Viguier M, Lemaitre F, Verola O et al (2004) Foxp3 expressing CD4+ CD25(high) regulatory T cells are overrepresented in human metastatic melanoma lymph nodes and inhibit the function of infiltrating T cells. J Immunol 173:1444–1453
Larmonier N, Marron M, Zeng Y et al (2007) Tumor-derived CD4(+)CD25 (+) regulatory T cell suppression of dendritic cell function involves TGF-beta and IL-10. Cancer Immunol Immunother 56:48–59
Antony PA, Piccirillo CA, Akpinarli A et al (2005) CD8+ T cell immunity against a tumor/self-antigen is augmented by CD4+ T helper cells and hindered by naturally occurring T regulatory cells. J Immunol 174:2591–2601
Prasad SJ, Farrand KJ, Matthews SA et al (2005) Dendritic cells loaded with stressed tumor cells elicit long-lasting protective tumor immunity in mice depleted of CD4+ CD25+ regulatory T cells. J Immunol 174:90–98
Dannull J, Su Z, Rizzieri D et al (2005) Enhancement of vaccine-mediated antitumor immunity in cancer patients after depletion of regulatory T cells. J Clin Invest 115:3623–3633
Acknowledgments
EK and NL are supported by NIH grant R01 CA104926, the Leukemia and Lymphoma Society Fellow Award 5188-07 (NL), The Alex’s Lemonade Stand Foundation for Childhood Cancer (NL), the Tee Up for Tots, and Raise a Racquet for Kids Funds (EK and NL).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Larmonier, N., Fraszczak, J., Lakomy, D. et al. Killer dendritic cells and their potential for cancer immunotherapy. Cancer Immunol Immunother 59, 1–11 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00262-009-0736-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00262-009-0736-1