Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Pediatric cholangiopathies: diseases of the gallbladder and biliary tract

  • Published:
Abdominal Radiology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Pediatric gallbladder and bile duct disease encompasses a broad spectrum of processes, from congenital to developmental to neoplastic. We describe normal pediatric biliary anatomy and summarize the most common pathologic entities, with a focus on non-invasive imaging techniques and findings. Ultrasound is the first-line imaging modality in children with suspected biliary pathology based on its widespread availability, cost effectiveness, and lack of ionizing radiation. MRI and MRCP are often used for further evaluation in cases of diagnostic uncertainty and for surgical planning.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12
Fig. 13

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Siegel MJ (2011) Pediatric Sonography, 4th edn. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

    Google Scholar 

  2. Yeh BM, et al. (2009) MR imaging and CT of the biliary tract. Radiographics 29(6):1669–1688

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Seale MK, et al. (2009) Hepatobiliary-specific MR contrast agents: Role in imaging the liver and biliary tree. Radiographics 29(6):1725–1748

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Griffin N, Charles-Edwards G, Grant LA (2012) Magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography: The ABC of MRCP. Insights Imaging 3(1):11–21

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. McGahan JP, Phillips HE, Cox KL (1982) Sonography of the normal pediatric gallbladder and biliary tract. Radiology 144(4):873–875

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Patriquin HB, DiPietro M, et al. (1983) Sonography of thickened gallbladder wall: Causes in children. Am J Roentgenol 141(1):57–60

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Toppet V, et al. (1990) Lymph node enlargement as a sign of acute hepatitis A in children. Pediatr Radiol 20(4):249–252

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Gwal K, et al. (2015) Reference values of MRI measurements of the common bile duct and pancreatic duct in children. Pediatr Radiol 45(8):1153–1159

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Goh YM, et al. (2015) A case report of duplex gallbladder and review of the literature. Int J Surg Case Rep 14:179–181

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  10. Kinoshita LL, et al. (2002) Sonographic detection of gallbladder duplication: Two cases discovered in utero. J Ultrasound Med 21(12):1417–1421

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Menon P, et al. (2013) Duplicated gall bladder with duodenal duplication cyst. J Pediatr Surg 48(4):e25–e28

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Botsford A, et al. (2015) MRCP imaging of duplicate gallbladder: A case report and review of the literature. Surg Radiol Anat 37(5):425–429

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Moyer V, Freese DK, et al. (2004) Guideline for the evaluation of cholestatic jaundice in infants: Recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 39(2):115–128

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Nicholas J (2015) Diseases of the Pediatric Gallbladder and Biliary Tract, in Textbook of Gastrointestinal Radiology. M.S.L. Richard M. Gore (ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier, Saunders, pp 2180–2199

  15. Balestreri W (1985) Neonatal cholestasis. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 106:171–184

    Google Scholar 

  16. Ikeda S, Sera Y, Oshiro H, et al. (1998) Gallbladder contraction in biliary atresia: A pitfall of ultrasound diagnosis. Pediatr Radiol 28:451–453

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Kendrick APT, Phua KB, Ooi BC, et al. (2000) Making the diagnosis of biliary atresia using the triangular cord sign and gallbladder length. Pediatr Radiol 30:69–73

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Kendrick APT, Phua KB, Ooi BC, Tan CE (2003) Biliary atresia: Making the diagnosis by the gallbladder ghost triad. Pediatr Radiol 33:311–315

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. McIlhenny J, Campbell S, Raible RJ, Antaki GM (1996) Pediatric case of the day. Biliary atresia and polysplenia syndrome. Am J Roentgenol 167: 269, 271–273.

  20. Baumann U, Ure B (2012) Biliary atresia. Clin Res Hepatol Gastroenterol 36:257–259

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Ohi RK, Kasai M, Takahashi T (1969) Intrahepatic biliary obstruction in congenital bile duct atresia. Tohoku J Exp Med 99:129–149

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Superina R, et al. (2011) The anatomic pattern of biliary atresia identified at time of Kasai hepatoportoenterostomy and early postoperative clearance of jaundice are significant predictors of transplant-free survival. Ann Surg 254(4):577

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  23. Park WH, et al. (1997) A new diagnostic approach to biliary atresia with emphasis on the ultrasonographic triangular cord sign: Comparison of ultrasonography, hepatobiliary scintigraphy, and liver needle biopsy in the evaluation of infantile cholestasis. J Pediatr Surg 32(11):1555–1559

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Haber BA, Russo P (2003) Biliary atresia. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 32(3):891–911

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Schwarz KB, et al. (2013) Extrahepatic anomalies in infants with biliary atresia: Results of a large prospective North American multicenter study. Hepatology 58(5):1724–1731

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. Shneider BL, et al. (2006) A multicenter study of the outcome of biliary atresia in the United States, 1997 to 2000. J Pediatr 148(4):467–474

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Davenport M, et al. (1993) Biliary atresia splenic malformation syndrome: An etiologic and prognostic subgroup. Surgery 113(6):662–668

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Mirza B, Iqbal S, Sheikh A (2012) Biliary atresia associated with polysplenia syndrome, situs inversus abdominus, and reverse rotation of intestine. APSP J Case Rep 3(2):14

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  29. Bennion RS, Thompson JE, Tompkins RK (1988) Agenesis of the gallbladder without extrahepatic biliary atresia. Arch Surg 123(10):1257–1260

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. De Matos V, et al. (2005) Does” Cystic” Biliary Atresia Represent a Distinct Clinical and Etiological Subgroup? A Series of Three Cases. Pediatr Dev Pathol 8(6):725–731

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Muise AM, et al. (2006) Biliary atresia with choledochal cyst: Implications for classification. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 4(11):1411–1414

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Moreira RK, et al. (2012) Biliary atresia: A multidisciplinary approach to diagnosis and management. Arch Pathol Lab Med 136(7):746–760

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Dolgin SE (2004) Answered and unanswered controversies in the surgical management of extra hepatic biliary atresia. Pediatr Transplant 8(6):628–631

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Davenport M, et al. (2003) The spectrum of surgical jaundice in infancy. J Pediatr Surg 38(10):1471–1479

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Kasai M, Ohi R (1983) Long-term follow-up results of patients with biliary atresia. Ind J Pediatr 50(2):209–217

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Ibrahim M, et al. (1997) Japanese Biliary Atresia Registry, 1989 to 1994. Tohoku J Exp Med 181(1):85–95

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Davenport M, et al. (2004) Seamless management of biliary atresia in England and Wales (1999–2002). Lancet 363(9418):1354–1357

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Wu ET, et al. (2001) Bacterial cholangitis in patients with biliary atresia: Impact on short-term outcome. Pediatr Surg Int 17(5–6):390–395

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Kendrick APT, et al. (2000) Making the diagnosis of biliary atresia using the triangular cord sign and gallbladder length. Pediatr Radiol 30(2):69–73

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Kendrick APAT, et al. (2003) Biliary atresia: Making the diagnosis by the gallbladder ghost triad. Pediatr Radiol 33(5):311–315

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Kim MJ, et al. (2000) Biliary Atresia in Neonates and Infants: Triangular Area of High Signal Intensity in the Porta Hepatis at T2-weighted MR Cholangiography with US and Histopathologic Correlation 1. Radiology 215(2):395–401

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Lee HJ, et al. (2003) Objective criteria of triangular cord sign in biliary atresia on US scans. Radiology 229(2):395–400

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Kim WS, et al. (2007) Hepatic arterial diameter measured with US: Adjunct for US diagnosis of biliary atresia. Radiology 245(2):549–555

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Treves ST (2007) Pediatric nuclear medicine/PET, 3rd edn. New York: Springer

    Book  Google Scholar 

  45. Tulchinsky M (2010) The SNM practice guideline on hepatobiliary scintigraphy. J Nucl Med 51(12):1825

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Jaw TS, et al. (1999) MR cholangiography in the evaluation of neonatal cholestasis. Radiology 212(1):249–256

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Han SJ, et al. (2002) Magnetic resonance cholangiography for the diagnosis of biliary atresia. J Pediatr Surg 37(4):599–604

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Guibaud L, et al. (1998) MR cholangiography in neonates and infants: Feasibility and preliminary applications. AJR Am J Roentgenol 170(1):27–31

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Norton KI, et al. (2002) MR Cholangiography in the Evaluation of Neonatal Cholestasis: Initial Results 1. Radiology 222(3):687–691

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Courtier JL, et al. (2012) Targeted MRI contrast agents for pediatric hepatobiliary disease. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 54(4):454–462

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  51. Alagille D, et al. (1987) Syndromic paucity of interlobular bile ducts (Alagille syndrome or arteriohepatic dysplasia): Review of 80 cases. J Pediatr 110(2):195–200

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Alagille D, et al. (1975) Hepatic ductular hypoplasia associated with characteristic facies, vertebral malformations, retarded physical, mental, and sexual development, and cardiac murmur. J Pediatr 86(1):63–71

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Lykavieris P (2001) Outcome of liver disease in children with Alagille syndrome: A study of 163 patients. Gut 49(3):431–435

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  54. Kamath BM, et al. (2004) Vascular anomalies in Alagille syndrome a significant cause of morbidity and mortality. Circulation 109(11):1354–1358

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Perrault J (1981) Paucity of interlobular bile ducts: Getting to know it better. Dig Dis Sci 26(6):481–484

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Tajima T, et al. (2001) Hepatic nodular hyperplasia in a boy with Alagille syndrome: CT and MR appearances. Pediatr Radiol 31(8):584–588

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Santiago I, et al. (2012) Congenital cystic lesions of the biliary tree. AJR Am J Roentgenol 198(4):825–835

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Soares KC, et al. (2014) Choledochal cysts: Presentation, clinical differentiation, and management. J Am Coll Surg 219(6):1167–1180

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  59. Huang CS, Huang CC, Chen DF (2010) Choledochal cysts: Differences between pediatric and adult patients. J Gastrointest Surg 14(7):1105–1110

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Sato M, et al. (2001) Choledochal cyst due to anomalous pancreatobiliary junction in the adult: Sonographic findings. Abdom Imaging 26(4):395–400

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Lee HK, et al. (2009) Imaging features of adult choledochal cysts: A pictorial review. Korean J Radiol 10(1):71–80

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  62. Wiseman K, et al. (2005) Epidemiology, presentation, diagnosis, and outcomes of choledochal cysts in adults in an urban environment. Am J Surg 189(5):527–531 (discussion 531)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Lewis VA, et al. (2015) Imaging of choledochal cysts. Abdom Imaging 40(6):1567–1580

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Shi LB, et al. (2001) Diagnosis and treatment of congenital choledochal cyst: 20 years’ experience in China. World J Gastroenterol 7(5):732–734

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  65. Komi N, et al. (1977) Congenital dilatation of the biliary tract; new classification and study with particular reference to anomalous arrangement of the pancreaticobiliary ducts. Gastroenterol Jpn 12(4):293–304

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Nagi B, et al. (2003) Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography in the evaluation of anomalous junction of the pancreaticobiliary duct and related disorders. Abdom Imaging 28(6):847–852

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Iwai N, et al. (1992) Congenital choledochal dilatation with emphasis on pathophysiology of the biliary tract. Ann Surg 215(1):27–30

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  68. Miyano T, Yamataka A (1997) Choledochal cysts. Curr Opin Pediatr 9(3):283–288

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Edil BH, Olino K, Cameron JL (2009) The current management of choledochal cysts. Adv Surg 43:221–232

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Todani T, et al. (2003) Classification of congenital biliary cystic disease: Special reference to type Ic and IVA cysts with primary ductal stricture. J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Surg 10(5):340–344

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Alonso-Lej F, Rever WB Jr, Pessagno DJ (1959) Congenital choledochal cyst, with a report of 2, and an analysis of 94, cases. Int Abstr Surg 108(1):1–30

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Todani T, et al. (1977) Congenital bile duct cysts: Classification, operative procedures, and review of thirty-seven cases including cancer arising from choledochal cyst. Am J Surg 134(2):263–269

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Michaelides M, et al. (2011) A new variant of Todani type I choledochal cyst. Imaging evaluation. Hippokratia 15(2):174–177

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  74. Ziegler KM, et al. (2010) Choledochoceles: Are they choledochal cysts? Ann Surg 252(4):683–690

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Lipsett PA, et al. (1994) Choledochal cyst disease. A changing pattern of presentation. Ann Surg 220(5):644–652

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  76. Nicholl M, et al. (2004) Choledochal cysts in western adults: Complexities compared to children. J Gastrointest Surg 8(3):245–252

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Shah OJ, et al. (2009) Choledochal cysts in children and adults with contrasting profiles: 11-year experience at a tertiary care center in Kashmir. World J Surg 33(11):2403–2411

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Egbert ND, Bloom DA, Dillman JR (2013) Magnetic resonance imaging of the pediatric pancreaticobiliary system. Magn Reson Imaging Clin N Am 21(4):681–696

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Lam WW, et al. (1999) MR cholangiography and CT cholangiography of pediatric patients with choledochal cysts. AJR Am J Roentgenol 173(2):401–405

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Nicholas J (2014) Textbook of gastrointestinal radiology: Diseases of the pediatric gallbladder and biliary tract. Amsterdam: Elsevier Health Sciences

    Google Scholar 

  81. Todani T, et al. (1995) Characteristics of choledochal cysts in neonates and early infants. Eur J Pediatr Surg 5(3):143–145

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Johnson K, Alton HM, Chapman S (1998) Evaluation of mebrofenin hepatoscintigraphy in neonatal-onset jaundice. Pediatr Radiol 28(12):937–941

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Park DH, et al. (2005) Can MRCP replace the diagnostic role of ERCP for patients with choledochal cysts? Gastrointest Endosc 62(3):360–366

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Sacher VY, et al. (2013) Role of magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography in diagnosing choledochal cysts: Case series and review. World J Radiol 5(8):304–312

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  85. Rozel C, et al. (2011) Imaging of biliary disorders in children. Pediatr Radiol 41(2):208–220

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Watts DR, Lorenzo GA, Beal JM (1974) Proceedings: Congenital dilatation of the intrahepatic biliary ducts. Arch Surg 108(4):592–598

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Cha SW, et al. (2008) Choledochal cyst and anomalous pancreaticobiliary ductal union in adults: Radiological spectrum and complications. J Comput Assist Tomogr 32(1):17–22

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Torra R, et al. (1997) Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease with anticipation and Caroli’s disease associated with a PKD1 mutation. Rapid communication. Kidney Int 52(1):33–38

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Parada LA, et al. (1999) Clonal chromosomal abnormalities in congenital bile duct dilatation (Caroli’s disease). Gut 45(5):780–782

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  90. Zhang DY, et al. (2012) Caroli’s disease: A report of 14 patients and review of the literature. J Dig Dis 13(9):491–495

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Venkatanarasimha N, et al. (2011) Imaging features of ductal plate malformations in adults. Clin Radiol 66(11):1086–1093

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Marchal GJ, et al. (1986) Caroli disease: High-frequency US and pathologic findings. Radiology 158(2):507–511

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Miller WJ, et al. (1995) Imaging findings in Caroli’s disease. AJR Am J Roentgenol 165(2):333–337

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Dayton MT, Longmire WP Jr, Tompkins RK (1983) Caroli’s Disease: A premalignant condition? Am J Surg 145(1):41–48

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Stringer MD, Lim P, Cave M, Martinez D, Lilford RJ (1996) Fetal gallstones. J Pediatr Surg 31(11):1589–1591

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Mehta S, et al. (2012) Clinical characteristics and risk factors for symptomatic pediatric gallbladder disease. Pediatrics 129(1):e82–e88

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Coley BD (2016) Caffey’s pediatric diagnostic imaging, 12th edn. Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders

    Google Scholar 

  98. Brill PW, Winchester P, Rosen MS (1982) Neonatal cholelithiasis. Pediatr Radiol 12(6):285–288

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Matos C, Avni EF, et al. (1987) Total parenteral nutrition (TPN) and gallbladder diseases in neonates. Sonographic assessment. J Ultrasound Med 6(5):243–248

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Svensson J, Makin E (2012) Gallstone disease in children. Semin Pediatr Surg 21(3):255–265

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Vrochides DV (2005) Is there a role for routine preoperative endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography for suspected choledocholithiasis in children? Arch Surg 140(4):359–361

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Kim TK, et al. (2002) Diagnosis of intrahepatic stones: Superiority of MR cholangiopancreatography over endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography. Am J Roentgenol 179(2):429–434

    Article  Google Scholar 

  103. Gunnarsdottir A, et al. (2008) Laparoscopic aided cholecystostomy as a treatment of inspissated bile syndrome. J Pediatr Surg 43(4):e33–e35

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Davenport M, et al. (2003) The spectrum of surgical jaundice in infancy. J Pediatr Surg 38(10):1471–1479

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Berrani H, et al. (2015) Association of N-acetylcysteine and glucagon during percutaneous cholangiography in the treatment of inspissated bile syndrome. Arch Pediatr 22(3):300–302

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Miloh T, et al. (2009) Inspissated bile syndrome in a neonate treated with cefotaxime: Sonographic aid to diagnosis, management, and follow-up. J Ultrasound Med 28(4):541–544

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. King LJ, et al. (2000) Hepatobiliary and pancreatic manifestations of cystic fibrosis: MR imaging appearances. Radiographics 20(3):767–777

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Ruzal-Shapiro C (1998) Cystic fibrosis: An overview. Radiol Clin North Am 36(1):143–161

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Akata D, Akhan O (2007) Liver manifestations of cystic fibrosis. Eur J Radiol 61(1):11–17

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Mieli-Vergani G, Vergani D (2016) Sclerosing cholangitis in children and adolescents. Clin Liver Dis 20(1):99–111

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Deneau M, et al. (2013) Primary sclerosing cholangitis, autoimmune hepatitis, and overlap in Utah children: Epidemiology and natural history. Hepatology 58(4):1392–1400

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Gregorio GV, et al. (2001) Autoimmune hepatitis/sclerosing cholangitis overlap syndrome in childhood: A 16-year prospective study. Hepatology 33(3):544–553

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Debray D, et al. (1994) Sclerosing cholangitis in children. J Pediatr 124(1):49–56

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Wilschanski M, et al. (1995) Primary sclerosing cholangitis in 32 children: Clinical, laboratory, and radiographic features, with survival analysis. Hepatology 22(5):1415–1422

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Feldstein AE, et al. (2003) Primary sclerosing cholangitis in children: A long-term follow-up study. Hepatology 38(1):210–217

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Miloh T, et al. (2009) A retrospective single-center review of primary sclerosing cholangitis in children. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 7(2):239–245

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Chavhan GB, et al. (2008) Primary sclerosing cholangitis in children: Utility of magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography. Pediatr Radiol 38(8):868–873

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Rossi G, et al. (2013) Diagnosis of sclerosing cholangitis in children: Blinded, comparative study of magnetic resonance versus endoscopic cholangiography. Clin Res Hepatol Gastroenterol 37(6):596–601

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Ibrahim SH, Lindor KD (2011) Current management of primary sclerosing cholangitis in pediatric patients. Paediatr Drugs 13(2):87–95

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Mitchell SA, et al. (2001) A preliminary trial of high-dose ursodeoxycholic acid in primary sclerosing cholangitis. Gastroenterology 121(4):900–907

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Ross AM, Anupindi SA, Balis UJ (2003) Case records of the Massachusetts General Hospital. Weekly clinicopathological exercises. Case 11-2003. A 14-year-old boy with ulcerative colitis, primary sclerosing cholangitis, and partial duodenal obstruction. N Engl J Med 348(15):1464–1476

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Pieringer H, et al. (2014) IgG4- related disease: An orphan disease with many faces. Orphanet J Rare Dis 9:110

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  123. Zen Y, et al. (2007) Pathological classification of hepatic inflammatory pseudotumor with respect to IgG4-related disease. Modern Pathol 20(8):884–894

    Article  Google Scholar 

  124. Donnelly LF, et al. (1998) Diagnosis please. Case 2: Embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma of the biliary tree. Radiology 208(3):621–623

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Caty MG, Oldham KT, Prochownik EV (1990) Embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma of the ampulla of Vater with long-term survival following pancreaticoduodenectomy. J Pediatr Surg 25(12):1256–1258

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Raney RBJr, et al. (1985) Rhabdomyosarcoma of the biliary tree in childhood. A report from the Intergroup Rhabdomyosarcoma Study. Cancer 56(3):575–581

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Brugières L, Branchereau S, Laithier V (2012) Paediatric malignant liver tumours. B Cancer 99(2):219–228

    Google Scholar 

  128. Pietsch JB, et al. (2001) Obstructive jaundice secondary to lymphoma in childhood. J Pediatr Surg 36(12):1792–1795

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Arenas GB (2006) Primary pancreatic lymphoma in pediatric patients. Radiologia 49(2):125–127

    Article  Google Scholar 

  130. Arellano CMR, Kritsaneepaiboon S, Lee EY (2011) CT Imaging findings of malignant neoplasms arising in the epigastric region in children. Clin Imaging 35(1):10–20

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the following individuals for assisting in the collection of images for this article: Melissa Semp, APN – Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, & Nutrition; Ann & Robert H. Lurie Children’s Hospital of Chicago. Kelsey Stoller, PNP – Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, & Nutrition; Ann & Robert H. Lurie Children’s Hospital of Chicago. Joan Lokar, APN, NP – Transplant Surgery; Ann & Robert H. Lurie Children’s Hospital of Chicago. Susan Kelly, RN – Research Coordinator; Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, & Nutrition; Ann & Robert H. Lurie Children’s Hospital of Chicago.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Medical Imaging, Ann & Robert H. Lurie Children’s Hospital of Chicago, 225 E. Chicago Ave., Box 09, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA

    Mark E. Sharafinski Jr.

  2. Nemours Hospital/Health System, 13535 Nemours Parkway, Orlando, FL, 32827, USA

    Arthur B. Meyers

  3. Department of Radiology, Children’s Hospital of Richmond at VCU, 1101 E. Marshall St., Room 4-052, Richmond, VA, 23298, USA

    Gregory Vorona

Authors
  1. Mark E. Sharafinski Jr.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Arthur B. Meyers
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Gregory Vorona
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Mark E. Sharafinski Jr..

Ethics declarations

Funding

None.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval

This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.

Informed consent

Not applicable.

IRB approval

Not applicable.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Sharafinski, M.E., Meyers, A.B. & Vorona, G. Pediatric cholangiopathies: diseases of the gallbladder and biliary tract. Abdom Radiol 42, 69–85 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00261-016-0865-x

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00261-016-0865-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation