Skip to main content
Log in

Monkeys would rather see and do: preference for agentic control in rhesus macaques

  • Research Article
  • Published:
Experimental Brain Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) engaged in a series of computerized tasks modeled on billiards and arcade games in order to determine their degree of preference for scenarios in which food rewards were contingent on their actions, as opposed to those in which outcomes appeared externally caused. Throughout these tasks, subjects showed a consistent preference for “agentic control,” a state in which goal-directed behavior is directly responsible for motivating outcomes. Other factors like the frequency and timing of reward deliveries were precisely controlled and did not explain observed preferences.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Barnes GW, Kish GB (1961) Reinforcing properties of the onset of auditory stimulation. J Exp Psychol 62:164–170

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Buhusi CV, Meck WH (2005) What makes us tick? Functional and neural mechanisms of interval timing. Nat Rev Neurosci 6:755–766

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Call J, Tomasello M (2008) Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind? 30 years later. Trends Cogn Sci 12:187–192

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cicchino JB, Aslin RN, Rakison DH (2011) Correspondences between what infants see and know about causal and self-propelled motion. Cognition 118:171–192

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen PR, Levesque HJ (1990) Intention is choice with commitment. Artif Intell 42:213–261

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Couchman JJ (2012) Self-agency in rhesus macaques. Biol Lett 8:39–41

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crockford C, Wittig RM, Mundry R, Zuberbühler K (2012) Wild chimpanzees informal ignorant group members of danger. Curr Biol 22:142–146

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Flombaum JI, Kundey SM, Santos LR, Scholl BJ (2004) Dynamic object individuation in rhesus macaques: A study of the tunnel effect. Psychol Sci 15:795–800

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Glover S, Dixon P (2004) Likelihood ratios: A simple and flexible statistic for empirical psychologists. Psychon Bull Rev 11:791–806

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hamlin JK, Wynn K, Bloom P (2007) Social evaluation by preverbal infants. Nature 450:557–560

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hampton RR, Zivin A, Murray EA (2004) Rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) discriminate between knowing and not knowing and collect information as needed before acting. Anim Cogn 7:239–246

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harlow HF (1950) Learning and satiation of response in intrinsically motivated complex puzzle performance by monkeys. J Comp Physiol Psychol 43:289–294

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Harlow HF, McClearn GE (1954) Object discrimination learned by monkeys on the basis of manipulation motives. J Comp Physiol Psychol 47:73–76

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hogan JA, Bolhuis JJ (2005) The development of behaviour: Trends since Tinbergen (1963). Anim Biol 55:371–398

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hurvich CM, Tsai CL (1989) Regression and times series model selection in small samples. Biometrika 76:297–307

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huys QJM, Dayan P (2009) A Bayesian formulation of behavioral control. Cognition 113:314–328

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kishida KT (2012) A computational approach to “free will” constrained by the games we play. Frontiers Integr Neurosci 6

  • Kornell N (2009) Metacognition in humans and animals. Curr Dir Cogn Sci 18:11–15

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kummer H (1996) Causal knowledge in animals. In: Sperber D, Premack D, Premack AJ (eds) Causal cognition: a multidisciplinary debate. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp 26–39

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Leotti LA, Delgado MR (2011) The inherent reward of choice. Psychol Sci 22:1310–1318

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Metcalfe J, Greene MJ (2007) Metacognition of agency. J Exp Psychol Gen 136:184–199

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Metcalfe J, Eich TS, Castel AD (2010) Metacognition of agency across the lifespan. Cognition 116:267–282

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miele DB, Wager TD, Mitchell JP, Metcalfe J (2011) Dissociating neural correlates of action monitoring and metacognition of agency. J Cogn Neurosci 23:3620–3636

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Neuringer A, Jensen G (2010) Operant variability and voluntary action. Psychol Rev 117:972–993

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Neuringer A, Jensen G, p Piff (2007) Stochastic matching and the voluntary nature of choice. J Exp Anal Behav 88:1–28

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Connell S, Dunbar RIM (2005) The perception of causality in chimpanzees (Pan supp.). Anim Cogn 8:60–66

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Penn DC, Holyoak KJ, Povinelli DJ (2008) Darwin’s mistake: Explaining the discontinuity between human and nonhuman minds. Behav Brain Sci 31:109–178

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Premack D, Premack AJ (1994) Levels of causal understanding in chimpanzees and children. Cognition 50:347–362

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Scholl BJ, Tremoulet PD (2000) Perceptual causality and animacy. Trends Cogn Sci 4:299–309

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith JD (2009) The study of animal metacognition. Trends Cogn Sci 13:389–396

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith JD, Couchman JJ, Beran MJ (2012) The highs and lows of theoretical interpretation in animal-metacognition research. Philos Trans R Soc B 367:1297–1309

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Snyder LH, Batista AP, Andersen RA (1997) Coding of intention in the posterior parietal cortex. Nature 386:167–170

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sommerville JA, Woodward AL, Needham A (2005) Action experience alters 3-month-old infants’ perception of others’ actions. Cognition 96:B1–B11

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Subiaul F, Cantlon JF, Holloway RL, Terrace HS (2004) Cognitive imitation in rhesus macaques. Science 305:407–410

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Swink S (2009) Game feel: a game designer’s guide to virtual sensation. Morgan Kaufmann, Burligton

    Google Scholar 

  • Terrace HS, Son L (2009) Comparative metacognition. Curr Opin Neurobiol 19:67–74

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Terrace HS, Petitto LA, Sanders RJ, Bever TG (1979) Can an ape create a sentence. Science 206:891–902

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thinès G, Costall A, Butterworth G (eds) (1991) Michotte’s experimental phenomenology of perception. Resources for ecological psychology, vol 8. Erlbaum, New York City

  • Tricomi EM, Delgado MR, Fiez JA (2004) Modulation of caudate activity by action contingency. Neuron 41:281–292

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Uller C, Nichols S (2000) Goal attribution in chimpanzees. Cognition 76:B27–B34

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wagemans J, van Lier R, Scholl BJ (2006) Introduction to Michotte’s heritage in perception and cognition research. Acta Psychol 123:1–19

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Washburn DA (1993) The stimulus movement effect: Allocation of attention or artifact. J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Proc 19:380–390

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Woodward AL (2009) Infants’ grasp of others’ intentions. Curr Dir Psychol Sci 18:53–57

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yeung N, Summerfield C (2012) Metacognition in human decision-making: Confidence and error monitoring. Philos Trans R Soc B 367:1310–1321

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zatorre RJ, Chen JL, Penhune VB (2007) When the brain plays music: Auditory-motor interactions in music perception and production. Nat Rev Neurosci 8:547–558

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Erin Danly and the many research assistants who assisted in the collection of these data. This grant was supported by NIMH grant R01 MH051153 awarded to H. Terrace.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Greg Jensen.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

PDF (454 KB)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Jensen, G., Altschul, D. & Terrace, H. Monkeys would rather see and do: preference for agentic control in rhesus macaques. Exp Brain Res 229, 429–442 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-013-3402-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-013-3402-y

Keywords

Navigation