Abstract
Purpose
Resilience serves as a protective factor against adverse outcomes following exposure to traumatic events. The extant literature focuses on psychiatric resilience in the context of internalizing symptoms, though resilience is also important in relation to externalizing symptoms. Research is needed to clarify the predictors of resilience across contexts. The aims of the current study are twofold: 1. Determine the association between psychiatric resilience (PR) and alcohol resistance (AR) and 2. Test for differential prediction of each form of resilience by exogenous predictors.
Methods
The sample (n = 7585) was drawn from the Virginia Adult Twin Studies of Psychiatric and Substance Use Disorders (VATSPSUD). Participants completed measures of internalizing symptoms, exposure to stressful life events, DSM alcohol abuse and dependence symptoms, maximum alcohol consumption, personality variables, and social support. All cross-sectional, structural equation modeling (SEM) analyses were conducted using Mplus software version 8.2.
Results
A single common factor model provided adequate fits for both PR and AR. In the full measurement model the correlation between the two resilience factors was estimated (r = 0.28, SE = 0.018, p < 0.001). Neuroticism and mastery predicted AR and PR, but differentially, with a stronger effect size for PR (neuroticism: B = 0.35, p < 0.001; mastery: B = − 0.36, p < 0.001). The positive social support factor did not predict either resilience variable, while interpersonal conflict was associated with both (AR = 0.09, p < 0.001; PR = 0.07, p < 0.001).
Conclusions
Findings extend the current literature on resilience in two ways. First, rigorous measurement model based definitions of two resilience variables are specified. Second, external validation of the AR and PR constructs is carried out using latent variable modeling techniques. The modest correlation suggests resilience may not be well-characterized by a single general attribute. Findings provide further evidence for predictors of resilience by way of displaying differential patterns of prediction effect sizes of PR and AR.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Amstadter AB, Maes HH, Sheerin CM, Myers JM, Kendler KS (2016) The relationship between genetic and environmental influences on resilience and on common internalizing and externalizing psychiatric disorders. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 51(5):669–678. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-015-1163-6
Amstadter AB, Moscati A, Maes HH, Myers JM, Kendler KS (2016) Personality, cognitive/psychological traits and psychiatric resilience: a multivariate twin study. Pers Individ Differ 91:74–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.11.041
Amstadter AB, Myers JM, Kendler KS (2014) Psychiatric resilience: longitudinal twin study. Br J Psychiatry 205(4):275–280. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.113.130906
Blanco C, Xu Y, Brady K, Pérez-Fuentes G, Okuda M, Wang S (2013) Comorbidity of posttraumatic stress disorder with alcohol dependence among US adults: Results from national epidemiological survey on alcohol and related conditions. Drug Alcohol Depend 132(3):630–638
Bonanno GA, Westphal M, Mancini AD (2011) Resilience to loss and potential trauma. Annu Rev Clin Psychol 7(1):511–535. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032210-104526
Connor KM, Davidson JRT (2003) Development of a new resilience scale: the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC). Depress Anxiety 18(2):76–82. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.10113
Derogatis LR, Lipman RS, Covi L (1966). SCL-90: An outpatient psychiatric rating scale-Preliminary Report. Psychopharmacology bulletin. The Clearinghouse
Eysenck, H. J., & Eysenck, S. B. G. (1975). Manual of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (junior & adult). Hodder and Stoughton Educational.
Green KT, Calhoun PS, Dennis MF, Beckham JC (2010) Exploration of the resilience construct in posttraumatic stress disorder severity and functional correlates in military combat veterans who have served since September 11, 2001. J Clin Psychiatry 71(7):823–830. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.09m05780blu
Kendler KS, Myers J (2015) Addiction resistance: definition, validation and association with mastery. Drug Alcohol Depend 154:236–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.06.043
Kendler KS, Prescott CA (2006) Genes, environment, and psychopathology: understanding the causes of psychiatric and substance use disorders. Guilford Press
Kenny DA, Kaniskan B, McCoach DB (2015) The performance of RMSEA in models with small degrees of freedom. Sociol Methods Res 44(3):486–507
Kessler RC, Berglund P, Demler O, Jin R, Merikangas KR, Walters EE (2005) Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry 62(6):593–602
Lee J-S, Ahn Y-S, Jeong K-S, Chae J-H, Choi K-S (2014) Resilience buffers the impact of traumatic events on the development of PTSD symptoms in firefighters. J Affect Disord 162:128–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2014.02.031
Luthar SS, Cicchetti D, Becker B (2000) The construct of resilience: a critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. Child Dev 71(3):543–562. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00164
Maddi SR, Kobasa SC, Hoover M (1979) An alienation test. J Hum Psychol 19(4):73–76
Martínez-Martí ML, Ruch W (2017) Character strengths predict resilience over and above positive affect, self-efficacy, optimism, social support, self-esteem, and life satisfaction. J Posit Psychol 12(2):110–119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2016.1163403
Masten AS (2014) Global perspectives on resilience in children and youth. Child Dev 85(1):6–20
Masten AS (2016) Resilience in developing systems: the promise of integrated approaches. Eur J Dev Psychol 13(3):297–312. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2016.1147344
Muthén, L.K. and Muthén, B.O. (1998-2017). Mplus User's Guide. Eighth Edition. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén
Ogle CM, Siegler IC, Beckham JC, Rubin DC (2017) Neuroticism increases PTSD symptom severity by amplifying the emotionality, rehearsal, and centrality of trauma memories. J Pers 85(5):702–715. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12278
Olff M (2012) Bonding after trauma: on the role of social support and the oxytocin system in traumatic stress. Eur J Psychotraumatol 3(1):18597. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v3i0.18597
Ozbay F, Johnson DC, Dimoulas E, Morgan CA, Charney D, Southwick S (2007) Social support and resilience to stress. Psychiatry (Edgmont) 4(5):35–40
Ozer EJ, Best SR, Lipsey TL, Weiss DS (2003) Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: a meta-analysis. Psychol Bull 129(1):52
Pietrzak RH, Southwick SM (2011) Psychological resilience in OEF–OIF veterans: application of a novel classification approach and examination of demographic and psychosocial correlates. J Affect Disord 133(3):560–568. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2011.04.028
Riolli L, Savicki V, Cepani A (2002) Resilience in the face of catastrophe: Optimism, personality, and coping in the Kosovo crisis. J Appl Soc Psychol 32(8):1604–1627
Rytwinski NK, Scur MD, Feeny NC, Youngstrom EA (2013) The co - occurrence of major depressive disorder among individuals with posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analysis. J Trauma Stress 26(3):299–309
Sawyers C, Kurtz ED, Sheerin C, Maes HH, Kendler KS, Amstadter AB (2020) A behavioral genetic investigation of conceptualizations of resilience in a female twin sample. Depression and anxiety 37(6):532–539
Schok ML, Kleber RJ, Lensvelt-Mulders GJLM (2010) A model of resilience and meaning after military deployment: personal resources in making sense of war and peacekeeping experiences. Aging Ment Health 14(3):328–338. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607860903228812
Sheerin CM, Amstadter AB, Kurtz ED, Bountress KE, Stratton KJ, McDonald SD, Workgroup M-AVM (2019) The association of resilience on psychiatric, substance use, and physical health outcomes in combat trauma-exposed military service members and veterans. Eur J Psychotraumatol 10(1):1625700. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2019.1625700
Sheerin CM, Stratton KJ, Amstadter AB, The VA Mid-Atlantic Mental Illness Research, C. C. (MIRECC) W., Education, McDonald SD (2018) Exploring resilience models in a sample of combat-exposed military service members and veterans: a comparison and commentary. Eur J Psychotraumatol 9(1):1486121. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2018.1486121
Southwick SM, Bonanno GA, Masten AS, Panter-Brick C, Yehuda R (2014) Resilience definitions, theory, and challenges: Interdisciplinary perspectives. Eur J Psychotraumatol 5(1):25338. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v5.25338
Southwick SM, Sippel L, Krystal J, Charney D, Mayes L, Pietrzak R (2016) Why are some individuals more resilient than others: the role of social support. World Psychiatry 15(1):77
Spitzer RL, Williams JBW, Gibbon M, First MB (1992) The structured clinical interview for DSM-III-R (SCID): I: history, rationale, and description. Arch Gen Psychiatry 49(8):624–629. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1992.01820080032005
Tsai J, Harpaz-Rotem I, Pietrzak RH, Southwick SM (2012) The role of coping, resilience, and social support in mediating the relation between PTSD and social functioning in veterans returning from Iraq and Afghanistan. Psychiatry Interpers Biol Process 75(2):135–149. https://doi.org/10.1521/psyc.2012.75.2.135
Tsai J, Harpaz-Rotem I, Pietrzak RH, Southwick SM (2017) Trauma resiliency and posttraumatic growth. In: APA handbook of trauma psychology: trauma practice, vol 2. American Psychological Association, pp 89–113. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000020-005
Vanyukov M, Cornelius M, De Genna N, Reynolds M, Kirillova G, Maher B, Kirisci L (2016) Measurement of liability to addiction: Dimensional approaches. Int J Person Centered Medicine 6(4)
Windle G (2011) What is resilience? A review and concept analysis. Rev Clin Gerontol 21(2):152–169
Wirth RJ, Edwards MC (2007) Item factor analysis: current approaches and future directions. Psychol Methods, Chicago 12(1):58
Funding
The dataset in this paper comes from the Mid-Atlantic Twin Registry, previously supported by NIH grant UL1RR031990. Ms. Cusack’s time is funded by Grant F31 AA027703, Dr. Sheerin’s time is funded by Grant K01 AA025692, and Dr. Amstadter’s time is partially funded by Grants K02 AA023239 and R01 AA020179, all from the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Cusack, S.E., Sheerin, C.M., Aggen, S.H. et al. Modeling the association between and predictors of two constructs of resilience. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 57, 1471–1481 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-022-02216-y
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-022-02216-y