Conclusions
The hypothesis that we are currently trying to demonstrate is that of “initial cells” start the process of carcinogenesis by inducing G1-cyclin-dependent RB phosphorylation, E2F release and an increase of glycolysis, with the consequent sustained diacylglycerol production: PKC is down-regulated and p53 is maintained in its latent, inactive form; genomic damage progressively accumulates and the chromosomal aberrations may activate other oncogenes or deactivate tumor suppressors, leading to progression towards malignancy. This model agrees with the abnormally high level of diacylglycerol found in a variety of malignant tumors (Mills et al. 1993, Hendickse et al. 1995; Casamassima et al. 1996) (see Fig. 1B). To take an extreme view, not only are the presence, the loss, or the mutations sufficient screening data for the status of p53 in malignancy, but also the presence or the absence of phosphate groups at the carboxyl ends, as revealed by Pab421 antibody.
References
Bischoff JR, Friedman PN, Marshak C, Prives C, Beach D (1990) Human p53 is phosphorylated by p60-cdc2 and cyclin B-cdc2. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 87:4766–4771
Casamassima F, Pacini S, Dragotto A, Anichini M, Chiarugi V, Ruggiero M (1996) Intracellular diacylglycerol: a mitogenic second messenger proposable as a marker of transformation in squamous cell carcinoma of the lung. Lung Cancer 7:34–45
Castagna M (1987) Phorbol esters as signal transducers and tumor promoters. Biol Cell 59:3–13
Chiarugi V, Bruni P, Pasquali F, Magnelli L, Basi G, Ruggiero M, Farnararo M (1989a) Synthesis of diacylglycerol de novo is responsible for permanent activation and down-regulation of protein kinase C in transformed cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 164:816–823
Chiarugi V, Magnelli L, Pasquali F, Basi G, Ruggiero M (1989b) Signal transduction in EJ-H-ras-transformed cells: de novo synthesis of diacylglycerol and subversion of agonist-stimulated inositol lipid metabolism. FEBS Lett 252:129–134
Darville MI, Antoine IV, Mertens-Strijthagen JR, Dupriez VJ, Rousseau GG (1995) An E2F-dependent late-serum-response promoter in a gene that controls glycolysis. Oncogene 11:1509–1517
Delphin C, Baudier J (1994). The protein kinase C activator, phorbol ester, cooperates with the wild-type p53 species of Ras transformed embryo fibroblasts growth arrest. J Biol Chem 269:29579–29587
Deppert W (1994) The ying and the yang of p53 in cellular proliferation. Cancer Biol 5:187–202
El-Deiry WS, Kern SE, Pietempol JA, Kinzler KW, Vogelstein B (1992) Human genomic DNA sequences define a consensus binding site for p53. Nature Genet 1:44–49
Enamoto Y, Mamone Y, Meinardt G, Kisaki H, Kharbanda S, Robertson M, Ghayur T, Worg WW, Kamen R, Weichselbaum R, Kufe D (1995) Proteolytic activation of protein kinase C-d by ICE-like protease in apoptotic cells. EMBO J 14:6148–6156
Farber B, Kinzel V (1990) Distribution of phorbol ester TPA induced structural chromosomal aberration in HeLa cells. Carcinogenesis 11:2067–2070
Farese RV, Konda TS, Davis JS, Standaert ML, Pollet RJ, Cooper DR (1987) Insulin rapidly increases diacylglycerol by activating de novo phosphatidic acid synthesis. Science 236:586–589
Fiscella M, Zambrano N, Ullrich SJ, Unger T, Lin D, Cho B, Mercer E, Anderson CW, Apella E (1994) The carboxyl-terminal serine 392 phosphorylation site of human p53 is not required for wild type activities. Oncogene 9:3249–3252
Fujiki H, Suganuma M (1994) Tumour necrosis factor-α, a new tumour promoter, engendered by biochemical studies of okadaic acid. J Biochem 115:1–5
Hecker D, Page G, Lohrum M, Weiland S, Scheidtmann KH (1996) Complex regulation of DNA-binding activity by p53 phosphorylation: differential effects of individual phosphorylation sites on the interaction with different binding motifs. Oncogene 12:953–961
Hendickse CW, Radley S, Donovan IA, Keighley MR, Neoptolemos JP (1995) Activities of phospholipase A2 and diacylglycerol lipase are increased in human colorectal cancer. Br J Surg 82:475–478
Hupp TR, Lane DP (1994) Regulation of cryptic sequence specific DNA binding protein function of p53 by protein kinases. Cold Spring Harbor Symp Quant Biol 59:195–206
Hupp TR, Lane DP (1995) Two distinct signalling pathways activate the latent DNA-binding function of p53 in a casein kinase II-independent manner. J Biol Chem 270:18165–18174
Hupp TR, Sparks A, Lane DP (1995) Small peptides activate the latent sequence-specific DNA binding function of p53. Cell 80:237–245
Jaken S (1996) Protein kinase C isoenzymes and substrates. Curr Opin Cell Biol 8:168–173
Jamal S, Ziff EB (1995) Raf phosphorylates p53 in vitro and potentiates p53 transcriptional transactivation in vivo. Oncogene 10:2095–2101
Kikkawa U, Nishizuka Y (1986) The role of protein kinase C in transmembrane cell signaling. Annu Rev Cell Biol 2:149–178
Krauter G, Von Der Lieth GW, Hecker E (1996) A new pharmacophore model for PKC activators based on structure activity studies and molecular modeling of tumour promoters TPA and 3-TI. Eur J Biochem (in press)
Lees-Miller SP, Sakaguchi K, Ullrich SJ, Apella E, Anderson CW (1992) Human DNA-activated protein kinase phosphorylates serines 15 and 37 in the aminoterminal transactivation domain of human p53. Mol Cell Biol 12:5041–5046
Li W, Michieli P, Alimandi M, Lorenzi M, Wu Y, Wang LH, Heideran M, Pierce JH (1996) Expression of ATP-binding mutant of PKC-δ inhibits Sis-induced transformation in NIH-3T3 cells. Oncogene 13:731–737
Livingstone LR, White A, Sprouse J, Livanos E, Jacks T, Tlsty TD (1992) Altered cell cycle arrest and gene amplification potential accompany loss of wild-type p53. Cell 70:923–935
Magnelli L, Cinelli M, Chiarugi V (1995) Phorbol esters attenuate the expression of p53 in cells treated with doxorubicin and protects tsp53/K562 from apoptosis. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 215:641–645
Mills KJ, Reynolds SH, Smart RC (1993) Diacylglycerol is an effector of the clonal expansion of cells containing activated Ha-ras genes. Carcinogenesis 14:2645–2648
Milne DM, Palmer RH, Meek DW (1992) Mutation of casein kinase II phosphorylation site abolishes the antiproliferative activity of p53. Nucleic Acids Res 20:5565–5570
Milne DM, Campbell DG, Caudwell FB, Meek DW (1994) Phosphorylation of tumor suppressor protein p53 by mitogen activated protein kinases. J Biol Chem 269:9253–9260
Milne DM, Campbell LE, Campbell DG, Meek DW (1995) p53 is phosphorylated in vitro and in vivo by the ultraviolet radiation-induced protein kinase characteristic of the c-jun kinase, JNK1. J Biol Chem 270:5511–5518
Milne DM, McKendrick L, Jardine LJ, Deacon E, Lord JM, Meek DW (1996) Murine p53 is phosphorylated within the Pab421 epitope by protein kinase C in vitro, but not in vivo, even after stimulation with the phorbol ester-o-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate. Oncogene 13:205–211
Nishizuka Y (1989) The Albert Lasker Medical Awards. The family of protein kinase C for signal transduction. JAMA 262:1826–1833
Nishizuka Y (1995) Protein kinase C and lipid signalling for sustained cellular responses. FASEB J 9:484–496
Owens DM, Spalding JW, Tennant RW, Smart RC (1995) Genetic alterations cooperate with Ha-ras to accelerate multistage carcinogenesis in TG.AC transgenic mouse skin. Cancer Res 55:3171–3178
Pitot HC (1996) Stage-specific gene expression during hepatocarcinogenesis in the rat. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 122:2547–265
Rousseau G, Fisher Y, Guering MA, Marchand MJ, Testor X, Hue L (1988) De novo synthesis of DAG and regulation of glycolysis. Prog Cancer Res Ther 35:159–167
Ruggieri B, Caamano J, Goodrow TX, Di Rado M, Bianchi A, Trono D, Conti C, Klein-Szanto JP (1991) Alterations of p53 tumor suppressor gene during mouse skin tumor progression. Cancer Res 51:6615–6621
Selivanova G, Wiman KG (1995) p53: a cell cycle regulator activated by DNA damage. Adv Cancer Res 66:143–180
Skouv J, Jensen PO, Forchhammer J, Larsen JK, Lund LR (1994) Tumor-promoting phorbol ester transiently down-modulates the p53 level and blocks the cell cycle. Cell Growth Differ 5:329–340
Smart RC, Mills KJ, Hansen LA, Conney AH (1989) Synthetic lipid second messengersn-1,2-didecanoylglycerol: a complete tumor promoter in mouse skin. Cancer Res 49:4455–4458
Steward N, Hicks GG, Paraskevas F, Movat M (1995) Evidence for a second cell cycle block at G2/M by p53. Oncogene 10:109–115
Takenaka I, Morin F, Seizinger BR, Kley N (1995) Regulation of the sequence specific DNA binding function of p53 by protein kinase C and protein phosphatases. J Biol Chem 270:5405–5411
Varshavsky A (1981) Phorbol ester dramatically increases incidence of methotrexate resistant mouse cells: possible mechanisms and relevance to tumour promotion. Cell 25:561–572
Wang Y, Prives C (1995) Increased and altered DNA binding of human p53 by S and G2/M but not G1 cyclin-dependent kinases. Nature 376:88–91
Watanabe T, Ono Y, Taniyama Y, Hazama K, Igarashi K, Ogita K, Kikkawa U, Nishizuka Y (1992) Cell division arrest induced by phorbol ester in CHO cells overexpressing protein kinase C-d subspecies. Proc Natl Acad Sci 89:10159–10163
Xiong Y, Zhang H, Beach D (1992) D-type cyclins associate with multiple protein kinases and DNA replication and repair factor PCNA. Cell 71:505–514
Yin Y, Tainsky MA, Bischoff FZ, Strong LC, Wahl GM (1992) Wild-type p53 restores cell cycle control and inhibits gene amplification in cells with mutant p53 alleles. Cell 70:937–948
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Additional information
The Journal Cancer Research and Clinical Oncology occasionally publishes Editorials and Guest editorials on current and controversial problems in experimental and clinical oncology. These papers reflect the personal opinions of the authors. Readers should send any comments directly to the authors.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Magnelli, L., Chiarugi, V. Regulation of p53 by protein kinase C during multi-stage carcinogenesis. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 123, 365–369 (1997). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01240118
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01240118