Abstract
The role played by emotions in negotiation is an increasingly popular topic. This chapter synthesizes current research around four broad themes: moves and exchanges, information processing, social interaction, and context. The authors’ review reveals that much of the research on this topic has focused on two key emotions, anger and happiness. More recently, negotiators have turned to other emotions such as guilt and disappointment, demonstrating that not all negative emotions have the same consequences or activate the same regions of the brain. Focusing on social interaction, the authors note that negotiators may influence each others’ emotions: Whether negotiators converge to anger or happiness has different consequences for agreement. Researchers have broadened their examination of emotion by considering how external factors such as power, the number of negotiators, culture, and gender influence the impact of emotional expression. The authors also consider the function and impact of expressing authentic emotions, or choosing to use emotions strategically to gain an advantage—an issue that raises important ethical questions for negotiators. The chapter concludes with some practical implications of the research.
Authors’ Note: This chapter was originally published in a somewhat different form in the Negotiation Journal, Volume 30, Number 6, October 2014. It is printed in this book with permission of the Journal and its publisher.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
Adam, H., Shirako, A., & Maddux, W. (2010). Cultural variance in the interpersonal effects of anger in negotiations. Psychological Science, 21, 882–889.
Adams, J. S. (1976). The structure and dynamics of behavior in organizational boundary roles. In M. D. Dunnette (Ed.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology. Chicago: Rand McNally.
Anderson, C., & Thompson, L. (2004). Affect from the top down: How powerful individuals’ positive affect shapes negotiations. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 95, 125–139.
Argyle, M., Lalljee, M., & Cook, M. (1968). The effects of visibility on interaction in a dyad. Human Relations, 21, 3–17.
Baron, R. A. (1990). Environmentally-induced positive affect: Its impact on self-efficacy, task performance, negotiation, and conflict. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 20, 368–384.
Barry, B., & Oliver, R. L. (1996). Affect in dyadic negotiation: A model and propositions. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 67, 127–143.
Barsade, S. G. (2002). The ripple effect: Emotional contagion and its influence on group behavior. Administrative Science Quarterly, 47, 644–675.
Bartunek, J. M., Benton, A., & Keys, C. B. (1975). Third party intervention and the bargaining behavior of group representatives. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 19, 532–557.
Brett, J., Olekalns, M., Friedman, R., Goates, N., Anderson, C., & Lisco, C. (2007). Sticks and stones: Language and on-line dispute resolution. Academy of Management Journal, 50, 85–99.
Burke, W., & Biggert, N. (1997). Inter-organizational cooperation. In D. Druckman, J. Singer, & H. Van Cott (Eds.), Enhancing organizational performance. Washington DC: National Academy Press.
Butt, A. N., & Choi, J. N. (2009). Does power matter? Negotiator status as a moderator of the relationship between negotiator emotion and behavior. International Journal of Conflict Management, 21(2), 124–146.
Carnevale, P. J. (2008). Positive affect and decision frame in negotiation. Group Decision and Negotiation, 17(1), 51–63.
Carnevale, P., & Isen, A. M. (1986). The influence of positive affect and visual access on the discovery of integrative solutions in bilateral negotiation. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 37, 1–13.
Clore, G. L., Gasper, K., & Gavin, E. (2001). Affect as information. In J. P. Forgas (Ed.), Handbook of affect and social cognition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Colibazzi, T., et al . (2010). Neural systems subserving valence and arousal during the experience of induced emotions. Emotion, 10(3): 377–389.
Côté, S., Hideg, I., & van Kleef, G. A. (2013). The consequences of faking anger in negotiations. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49, 453–463.
Daly, J. P. (1991). The effects of anger on negotiations over mergers and acquisitions. Negotiation Journal, 7, 31–39.
Darwin, C. (1872). The Expression of the emotions in man and animals. London: Murray.
De Dreu, C. K. W., et al. (2010). The neuropeptide oxytocin regulates parochial altruism in intergroup conflict among humans. Science, 328, 1408.
De Dreu, C. K. W., Weingart, L., & Kwon, S. (2002). Influence of social motives on integrative negotiation: A meta-analytic review and test of two theories. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 889–905.
DePaulo, B. M., Zuckerman, M., & Rosenthal, R. (1980). Detecting deception: Modality effects. In L. Wheeler (Ed.), Review of personality and social psychology (Vol. 1). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Donohue, W. A., & Druckman, D. (2009). Message framing surrounding the Oslo I accords. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 53(1), 119–145.
Druckman, D. (1998). Social exchange theory: Promises and prospects. International Negotiation, 3, 253–266.
Druckman, D. (1994). Determinants of compromising behavior in negotiation: A meta-analysis. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 38, 507–556.
Druckman, D., & Bjork, R. A. (1994). Learning, remembering, and believing: Enhancing human performance. Washington DC: National Academy Press.
Druckman, D., Karis, D., & Donchin, E. (1986). Information processing in bargaining: Reactions to an opponent’s shift in concession strategy. In R. Tietz (Ed.), Aspiration levels in bargaining and economic decision making. Berlin: Springer.
Druckman, D., Rozelle, R., & Baxter, J. (1982). Nonverbal communication: Survey, theory, and research. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Dunn, J. R., & Schweitzer, M. E. (2005). Feeling and believing: The influence of emotion on trust. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 736–748.
Ekman, P. (1972). Universal and cultural differences in facial expressions of emotion. In J. K. Cole (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press.
Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1975). Unmasking the face: A guide to recognizing emotions from facial clues. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1974). Detecting deception from the body or face. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 29, 288–298.
Filipowicz, A. S., Barsade, S., & Melwani, S. (2011). Understanding emotional transitions: The interpersonal consequences of changing emotions in negotiations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101, 541–556.
Fisher, R., & Ury, W. L. (1981). Getting to yes: Negotiating agreement without giving in. London: Penguin.
Forgas, J. P. (1998). On feeling good and getting your way: Mood effects on negotiator cognition and bargaining strategies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 565–577.
Fineman, S. (Ed.). (1993). Emotion in organizations. London: Sage.
Friedman, R., Brett, J., Anderson, C., Olekalns, M., Goates, N., & Lisco, C. (2004). Emotions and rationality in mediation: Evidence from electronically-mediated disputes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 369–376.
Gibson, D., Schweitzer, M., Callister, R., & Gray, B. (2009). The influence of anger expressions on outcomes in organizations. Negotiation and Conflict Management Research, 2, 236–262.
Goffman, E. (1969). Strategic interaction. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Harinck, F., & Van Kleef, G. A. (2012). Be hard on the interests and soft on the values: Conflict issue moderates the effects of anger in negotiations. British Journal of Social Psychology, 51, 741–752.
Hatfield, E., Cacioppo, J. T., & Rapson, R. L. (1993). Emotional contagion. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2, 96–99.
Hegtvedt, K. A., & Killian, C. (1999). Fairness and emotions: Reactions to the process and outcomes of negotiations. Social Forces, 78, 269–303.
Henderson, M. D., Trope, Y., & Carnevale, P. J. (2006). Negotiating from a near and distant time perspective. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4, 712–729.
Hopmann, P. T. (1995). Two paradigms of negotiation: Bargaining and problem solving. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 542, 24–47.
Huffaker, D. A., Swaab, R., & Diermeier, D. (2011). The language of coalition formation in online multiparty negotiations. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 30, 66–81.
Irmer, C., & Druckman, D. (2009). Explaining negotiation outcomes: Process or context? Negotiation and Conflict Management Research, 2(3), 209–235.
Johnson, D. W. (1971a). The effects of warmth of interaction, accuracy of understanding, and the proposal of compromises on the listener’s behavior. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 18, 207–216.
Johnson, D. W. (1971b). Effects of the order of expressing warmth and anger on the actor and listener. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 18, 571–578.
Ketelaar, T., & Au, W. T. (2003). The effects of feelings of guilt on the behavior of uncooperative individuals in repeated social bargaining games: An affect-as-information interpretation of the role of emotion in social interaction. Cognition and Emotion, 17, 429–453.
Keltner, D., Haidt, J. & Shiota, M. N. (2006). Social functionalism and the evolution of emotions. In M. Schaller, J. A. Simpson, & D. T. Kenrick, (Eds.), Evolution and social psychology: Frontiers of social psychology. Madison, CT: Psychosocial Press.
Knapp, M. L., & Miller, G. R. (1985). Handbook of interpersonal communication. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Kopelman, S., & Rosette, A. (2008). Cultural variation in response to strategic emotions in negotiation. Group Decision and Negotiation, 17, 65–77.
Kopelman, S., Rosette, A., & Thompson, L. (2006). The three faces of eve: Strategic displays of positive, negative, and neutral emotions in negotiations. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 99, 81–101.
Kressel, K., Frontera, E., Forlenza, S., Butler, F., & Fish, L. (1994). The settlement orientation vs. the problem-solving style in custody mediation. Journal of Social Issues, 50, 67–84.
Lelieveld, G., Van Dijk, E., Van Beest, I., Steinel, W., & Van Kleef, G. (2011). Disappointed in you, angry about your offer: Distinct negative emotions induce concessions via different mechanisms. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47, 635–641.
Lindquist, K. A., et al. (2012). The brain basis of emotion: A meta-analytic review. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 35, 121–202.
Liu, M., & Wang, C. (2010). Explaining the influence of anger and compassion on negotiators’ interaction goals: An assessment of trust and distrust as two distinct mediators. Communication Research, 37, 443–472.
Liu, M. (2009). The intrapersonal and interpersonal effects of anger on negotiation strategies: A cross-cultural investigation. Human Communication Research, 35, 148–169.
Lewicki, R., & Stevenson, M. (1997). Trust development in negotiation: Proposed actions and a research agenda. Paper presented at the conference on Trust and Business: Barriers and Bridges. Chicago: DePaul University.
Martinez, L. M., et al. (2011). Behavioural consequences of regret and disappointment in social bargaining games. Cognition and Emotion, 25, 351–359.
Mislin, A., Campagna, R. L., & Bottom, W. P. (2011). After the deal: Talk, trust building and the implementation of negotiated agreements. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 115, 55–68.
Morris, M. W., & Keltner, D. (2000). How emotions work: The social functions of emotional expression in negotiations. Research in Organizational Behavior, 22, 1–50.
Nelissen, R. A., Leliveld, M., van Dijk, E., & Zeelenberg, M. (2011). Fear and guilt in proposers: Using emotions to explain offers in ultimatum bargaining. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41, 78–85.
O’Connor, K., & Carnevale, P. (1997). A nasty but effective negotiation strategy: Misrepresentation of a common-value issue. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 504–519.
Olekalns, M., Lau, F., & Smith, P. (2007). Resolving the empty core: Trust as a determinant of outcomes in three-party negotiations. Group Decision and Negotiation, 16, 527–538.
Olekalns, M., Brett, J., & Donohue, W. (2010). Words are all I have: Linguistic cues as predictors of settlement in divorce mediation. Negotiation and Conflict Management Research, 3, 145–168.
Olekalns, M., & Smith, P. (2009). Mutually dependent: Power, trust, affect and the use of deception in negotiation, Journal of Business Ethics, 85, 347-365.
Olekalns, M., Roberts, C., Probst, T., Smith, O., & Carnevale, P. (2005). The impact of message frame on Negotiators’ social judgments, moods and behavior. International Journal of Conflict Management, 16, 379–402.
Overbeck, J. R., Neale, M. A., & Govan, C. L. (2010). I feel, therefore you act: Intrapersonal and interpersonal effects of emotion on negotiation as a function of social power. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 112, 126–139.
Pietroni, D., Van Kleef, G., De Dreu, C., & Pagliaro, S. (2008). Emotions as strategic information: Effects of other’s emotional expressions on fixed-pie perception, demands, and integrative behavior in negotiation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 1444–1454.
Plant, E. A., Hyde, J. S., Keltner, D., & Devine, P. G. (2000). The gender stereotyping of emotions. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24, 81–92.
Posner, J., et al. (2009). The neurophysiological bases of emotion: An fMRI study of the affective circumplex using emotion-denoting words. Human Brain Mapping, 30, 883–895.
Pruitt, D. G. (1995). Flexibility in conflict episodes. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 542, 100–115.
Russell, J. A. (1980). A circumplex model of affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 1161–1178.
Shiota, M. N., Keltner, D., & Hertenstein, M. J. (2004). Positive emotion and the regulation of interpersonal relationships. In P. Philippot & R. S. Feldman (Eds.), The regulation of emotion. Hillsdale NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Sinaceur, M., & Tiedens, L. (2006). Get mad and get more than even: When and why anger expression is effective in negotiations. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 314–322.
Sinaceur, M., Adam, H., Van Kleef, G. A., & Galinsky, A. D. (2013). The advantages of being unpredictable: How emotional inconsistency extracts concessions in negotiation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49, 498–508.
Sinaceur, M., Van Kleef, G. A., Neale, M., Adam, H., & Haag, C. (2011). Hot or cold: Is communicating anger or threats more effective in negotiation? Journal of Applied Psychology, 96, 1018–1032.
Srivastava, J., Espinoza, F., & Fedorikhin, A. (2009). Coupling and decoupling of unfairness and anger in ultimatum bargaining. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 22, 475–489.
Steinel, W., Van Kleef, G. A., & Harinck, F. (2008). Are you talking to me?! Separating the people from the problem when expressing emotions in negotiation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 362–369.
Steinel, W., & De Dreu, C. K. W. (2004). Social motives and strategic misrepresentation in social decision making. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 419–434.
Swaab, R. I., & Swaab, D. F. (2008). Sex differences in the effects of visual contact and eye contact in negotiations. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 129–136.
Swaab, R. I., Maddux, W. W., & Sinaceur, M. (2011). Early words that work: When and how linguistic mimicry facilitates negotiation outcomes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47, 616−621.
Sy, T., Cote, S., & Saavedra, R. (2005). The contagious leader: impact of the leader’s mood on the mood of group members, group affective tone, and group processes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 295–305.
Taylor, P., & Thomas, S. (2008). Linguistic style matching and negotiation outcome. Negotiation and Conflict Management Research, 1, 263–281.
Thompson, L. (1990). An examination of naïve and experienced negotiators. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 82–90.
Tiedens, L. Z., & Linton, S. (2001). Judgment under emotional certainty and uncertainty: The effects of specific emotions on information processing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 973–988.
Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-level theory of psychological distance. Psychological Review, 117, 440–463.
Van Beest, I., Van Kleef, G. A., & Van Dijk, E. (2008). Get angry, get out: The interpersonal effects of anger communication in multiparty negotiation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 993–1002.
Van Dijk, E., Van Kleef, G. A., Steinel, W., & Van Beest, I. (2008). A social functional approach to emotions in bargaining: When communicating anger pays and when it backfires. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 600–614.
van der Gaad, C., Minderaa, R. B., & Keysers, C. (2007). Facial expressions: What the mirror neuron system can and cannot tell us. Social Neuroscience, 2, 179–222.
Van Kleef, G. (2009). How emotions regulate social life: The emotions as social information (EASI) model. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18(3), 184–188.
Van Kleef, G., & Cote, S. (2007). Expressing anger in conflict: When it helps and when it hurts. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 1557–1569.
Van Kleef, G. A., & De Dreu, C. K. W. (2010). Longer-term consequences of anger expression in negotiation: Retaliation or spillover? Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 753–760.
Van Kleef, G. A., De Dreu, C. K. W., & Manstead, A. S. R. (2006a). Supplication and appeasement in conflict and negotiation: The interpersonal effects of disappointment, worry, guilt, and regret. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 124–142.
Van Kleef, G. A., De Dreu, C. K. W., Pietroni, D., & Manstead, A. S. (2006b). Power and emotion in negotiation: Power moderates the interpersonal effects of anger and happiness on concession making. European Journal of Social Psychology, 36, 557–581.
Van Kleef, G. A., De Dreu, C. K. W., & Manstead, A. S. (2004a). The interpersonal effects of anger and happiness in negotiations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 57–76.
Van Kleef, G. A., et al. (2004b). The interpersonal effects of emotions in negotiations: A motivated information processing approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 510–528.
Wall, J. A. (1975). Effects of constituent trust and representative bargaining orientation in intergroup bargaining. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 1004–1112.
Walton, R. E., & McKersie, R. B. (1965). A behavioral theory of labor negotiations: An analysis of a social interaction system. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Wicker, B., Keysers, C., Plailly, J., Royet, J. P., Gallese, V., & Rizzolatti, G. (2003). Both of us disgusted in my insula: the common neural basis of seeing and feeling disgust. Neuron, 40, 655–664.
Wietzker, A., Buysse, A., Loeys, T., & Brondeel, R. (2012). Easing the conscience: Feeling guilty makes people cooperate in divorce negotiations. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 29, 324–336.
Woodworth, R. S. (1938). Experimental psychology. New York: Henry Holt.
Zartman, I. W., & Kremenyuk, V. (2005). Peace versus justice: negotiating forward- and backward-looking outcomes. Lanham MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2015 Springer Netherlands
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Olekalns, M., Druckman, D. (2015). With Feeling: How Emotions Shape Negotiation. In: Martinovsky, B. (eds) Emotion in Group Decision and Negotiation. Advances in Group Decision and Negotiation, vol 7. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9963-8_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9963-8_2
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-94-017-9962-1
Online ISBN: 978-94-017-9963-8
eBook Packages: Behavioral ScienceBehavioral Science and Psychology (R0)