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Climate Change and the Law

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General Reports of the XVIIIth Congress of the International Academy of Comparative Law/Rapports Généraux du XVIIIème Congrès de l’Académie Internationale de Droit Comparé

Abstract

This report surveys climate change law in 19 countries. It looks at the main legal and political decisions taken by the covered countries in relation to EC Community Law, other regional law, the UN Climate Change Framework Convention of 1992 and the Kyoto protocol. It then examines the political and legal framework for taking action to mitigate the effects of climate change. The study also considers the way in which each country estimates the position or need for climate law other than international political commitments. It looks at the framework for national and international legislation providing a commitment to regulation. Instruments for reaching climate friendly energy objectives are reviewed. Finally, the report assesses programs and strategies for adaption management, including those addressing global warming.

II.D., Changement climatique et la loi.

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Notes

  1. 1.

     Since the national reports were prepared mostly during the winter 2009/2010, the latest features of development are not included in those presentations. By setting the policy in the EU of not exceeding 2°C, some reporters see this is an allowance for increasing warming correspondingly. In Copenhagen more stringent limits were proposed but not adopted. Setting the degree limit would in any case be followed up a later review eventually in 2015.

  2. 2.

     Directive 2003/87/EC of the European Parliament and the Council of 13 October 2003 establishing a scheme for greenhouse gas emission allowance trading within the Community and amending Council Directive 96/61/EC.

  3. 3.

    http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/items/2830.php.

  4. 4.

     Vinay Ganga, and Simon Armitage, “The Kyoto Protocol, Carbon Credit Trading and their Impact on Energy Projects in Europe and the World,” International Energy Law and Taxation Review 4: 73.

  5. 5.

     Climate Change: the UK Programme (Cm 2427, 1994).

  6. 6.

     Department of Climate Change, The UK’s Fifth National Communication under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (2009).

  7. 7.

    See for renewable energy: Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources and amending and subsequently repealing Directives 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC.

  8. 8.

    Letter of 8 September 2009 to the Dutch Parliament, TK 2009–2010, 30 196, nr. 75.

  9. 9.

    Resolution No. 187/2004.

  10. 10.

    Emissions Trading Act (Act 683/2004).

  11. 11.

    Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change (HM Treasury, 2006); see http://www.occ.gov.uk/activities/stern.htm.

  12. 12.

    Climate Change Act 2008 and Climate Change (Scotland) Act 2009.

  13. 13.

    The new department took over responsibilities previously with the Department of the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs and the Department of Business, Innovation and Skills (formerly the Department for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform); see http://www.decc.gov.uk. An Office of Climate Change has existed since 2006: see http://www.occ.gov.uk/.

  14. 14.

    UK Climate Change Act (http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts2008/pdf/ukpga_20080027_en.pdf); See for a critical discussion Mark Stallworthy, “Legislating against Climate Change: A UK Perspective on a Sisyphean Challenge,” The Modern Law Review (2009) 72(3): 412–462.

  15. 15.

    Both strategies are available from the website of the Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government at http://www.environ.ie/en/Environment/Atmosphere/ClimateChange/NationalClimateChangeStrategy/.

  16. 16.

    National Climate Change Strategy 2007, 7.

  17. 17.

    Garnaut Climate Change Review Final Report, Table 3.2.

  18. 18.

    http://www.climat.be/IMG/pdf/NC4_ENG_LR.pdf.

  19. 19.

    http://www.climat.be/IMG/pdf/Broeikasgasemissies_2007.pdf.

  20. 20.

    Belgium’s Greenhouse Gas Inventory (1990–2007). National Inventory Report submitted under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, April 2009, p 9; Rekenhof, Federaal klimaatbeleid. Uitvoering van het Kyotoprotocol. Verslag van het Rekenhof aan de Kamer van Volksvertegen­woordigers, Brussels, June 2009, 7.

  21. 21.

    National Inventory Reports on greenhouse gas emissions, prepared by the Environmental Protection Agency, are available at http://coe.epa.ie/ghg/nirdownloads.jsp.

  22. 22.

    Greenhouse Gas Inventories for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland: 1990–2006 (AEA Report to the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, The Scottish Government, The Welsh Assembly Government and The Northern Ireland Department of Environment; 2008).

  23. 23.

    The greenhouse gases measured are CO2, CH4 and N2O with baselines in 1990 and HFCs, PFCs and SF6 with baselines in 1995.

  24. 24.

    Based on Table 3.1 and subsequent discussion in the Inventories (note 22, above).

  25. 25.

    L. Lavrysen, “Chapter 2. Belgium” in The Role of the Judiciary in Environmental Governance. Comparative Perspectives, L. J. Kotze and A. R. Paterson, 88–90 (Alphen aan den Rijn: Kluwer Law International, 2009).

  26. 26.

    See Bericht zur Umsetzung der in der Kabinettsklausur am 23./24.8.2007 in Meseberg beschlossenen Eckpunkte für ein Integriertes Energie- und Klimaprogramm dated 5.12.2007. The report contains 14 proposals for laws and regulations. See also the background report by BMU, Das Integrierte Energie- und Klimaprogramm der Bundesregierung, Hintergrund of December 2007.

  27. 27.

    Decision No 406/2009/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the effort of Member States to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions to meet the Community’s greenhouse gas emission reduction commitments up to 2020.

  28. 28.

    Council Decision 2002/358/EC of 25 April 2002 concerning the approval, on behalf of the European Community, of the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the joint fulfillment of commitments there under.

  29. 29.

    Koalitionsvertrag zwischen CDU, FDP and CSU: “Wir werden für Deutschland einen konkreten Entwicklungspfad festlegen und bekräftigen unser Ziel, die Treibhausgas-Emissionen bis 2020 um 40% gegenüber 1990 zu senken.”

  30. 30.

    Coalitieakkoord tussen de Tweede Kamerfracties van CDA, PvdA en ChristenUnie, http://www.regering.nl/Het_kabinet/Beleidsprogramma_2007_2011.

  31. 31.

    Department of Energy and Climate Change, The Road to Copenhagen: The UK Government’s case for an ambitious international agreement on climate change (Cm 7659, 2009).

  32. 32.

    http://www.grian.ie/, http://www.foe.ie/, http://www.stopclimatechaos.ie/.

  33. 33.

    Federal Greenhouse Gas Emissions Trading Act (TEHG) 2004, Federal Allocation Act 2004 (ZuG), the National Allocation Plan I of 31st March 2004, Federal Allocation Act 2012 2007 and the National Allocation Plan II 14 of 28 August 2006.

  34. 34.

    This party is called “Partij voor de Vrijheid”, the members in Parliament belonging to this Party have submitted several questions to the Dutch government critically questioning the need for a climate policy.

  35. 35.

    http://www.climat.be/IMG/pdf/NKP_2009-2012.pdf.

  36. 36.

    Government statement by Chancellor Angela Merkel, Bulletin der Bundesregierung, No. 127–1 of 17 December 2009, p. 7 ff.

  37. 37.

    For discussion of the goals of Irish climate change policy, see page 7 of the 2007 Strategy and page 2 of the 2000 Strategy.

  38. 38.

    Martin Winkler, Klimaschutzrecht, 2005; Klaus F. Gärditz, “Schwerpunktbereich – Einführung in das Klimaschutzrecht,“ Juristische Schulung (2008), 324; Thorsten Müller and Helmuth Schulze-Fielitz, “Auf dem Weg zu einem Klimaschutzrecht,” in Europäisches Klimaschutzrecht, ed. idem (Nomos, Baden-Baden), 9, particularly p. 15.

  39. 39.

    Klaus F. Gärditz (footnote 31), 324.

  40. 40.

    Directive 2003/87/EC of the European Parliament and the Council of 13 October 2003 establishing a scheme for greenhouse gas emission allowance trading within the Community and amending Council Directive 96/61/EC (IPPC).

  41. 41.

    For effort sharing see Decision No 406/2009/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the effort of Member States to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions to meet the Community’s greenhouse gas emission reduction commitments up to 2020, OJ L 140/136. See also the Burden sharing decision (Council Decision 2002/358/EC, OJ L 130/1).

  42. 42.

    European Commission, Questions and Answers on the Decision on effort sharing, MEMO/08/797, Brussels, 17 December 2008 (Question 1).

  43. 43.

    Internal treaty approved by federal and regional parliaments.

  44. 44.

    See SRU, Der Umweltschutz in der Föderalismusreform, Stellungnahme Nr. 10, Februar 2006, p. 5; Hans-Joachim Koch and Susan Krohn, “Umweltschutz in schlechter Verfassung,” Natur und Recht (2006)28: 673 (676f).

  45. 45.

    Directive 2009/31/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the geological storage of carbon dioxide and amending Council Directive 85/337/EEC, European Parliament and Council Directives 2000/60/EC, 2001/80/EC, 2004/35/EC, 2006/12/EC, 2008/1/EC and Regulation (EC) No 1013/2006.

  46. 46.

    See Hodgkinson (ed.), “Ch. 6: State and Territory-based Law and Policy” in Australian Climate Change Law and Policy (Chatswood: LexisNexis Butterworths, 2009).

  47. 47.

    For an in-depth view see Hans-Joachim Koch/Reinhard Hendler (footnote 49), § 25, Rn.79.

  48. 48.

    See Hans-Joachim Koch and Annette Wienecke, “Klimaschutz durch Emissionshandel – Das europäische und deutsche Anlagengenehmigungsrecht als Ordnungsrahmen,” Deutsches Verwaltungsblatt (2001) 14: 1085; Eckard Rehbinder and Michael Schmalholz, “Handel mit Emissionsrechten für Treibhausgase in der Europäischen Union,” Umwelt Und Planungsrecht (2002) 22:1.

  49. 49.

    Decree 16 March 1999 no. 79, Bersani Decree.

  50. 50.

    Sources of Energy (Undertaking a Study to Find the Potential for Energy Conservation) Regulation, K.T. 5763 p. 1099 and Energy Sources (Supervision of Efficient Use of Energy) Regulation, K.T. 5764 p. 10.

  51. 51.

    Wijziging van de Gaswet en de Elektriciteitswet 1998, tot versterking van de werking van de gasmarkt, verbetering van de voorzieningszekerheid en houdende regels met betrekking tot de voorrang voor duurzame elektriciteit.

  52. 52.

    BGBl I 1990, p. 2633; last amended by law enacted 24 April 1998: BGBl I 1998, p. 730. On 1 April 2000 the Renewable Energy Sources Act (EEG 2000) dated 29 March 2000: BGB1 I 2000, p. 305 replaced the Stromeinspeisungsgesetz.

  53. 53.

    E.g., US Conference of Mayors, Climate Protection Agreement, www.usmayors.org/climate protection/agreement.htm, joined by 1,011 mayors (last visited Oct. 22, 2009).

  54. 54.

    Strategies include, e.g., efficiencies in energy, transportation, and land use, conservation of energy, efficiencies in agriculture and forestry, waste reduction and recycling, improvement in industry processes. See 42 U.S.C. § 6833(a), (b) (requiring states to review residential and commercial building codes and determine whether they should adopt specified energy codes for buildings).

  55. 55.

    Shannon, Green and Thompson, ‘Commonwealth Policy and Legislation’ in Climate Change Law and Policy in Australia, LexisNexis, 2009 at [5–205].

  56. 56.

    Regulation (EC) No. 443/2009 of the European Parliament and the Council of 23 April 2009 on setting emission performance standards for new passenger cars as part of the Community’s integrated approach to reduce CO2 emissions from light-duty vehicles.

  57. 57.

    Directive 2003/87/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 October 2003 establishing a scheme for greenhouse gas emission allowance trading within the Community and amending Council Directive 96/61/EC, amended by Directive 2004/101/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 October 2004 amending Directive 2003/87/EC establishing a scheme for greenhouse gas emission allowance trading within the Community.

  58. 58.

    See e.g. Commission Regulation (EC) No 2216/2004 of 21 December 2004 for a standardized and secured system of registries pursuant to Directive 2003/87/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council, amended by Commission Regulation (EC) No 916/2007 of 31 July 2007 and Commission Regulation (EC) No 994/2008 of 8 October 2008.

  59. 59.

    http://www.climatechange.gov.au/~/media/publications/international/dl-international-brochure-series.ashx.

  60. 60.

    See for CIPE n. 123 del 19 dicembre 2002, G.U. n. 68 del 3.3.2003.

  61. 61.

    Department of Climate Change, ‘Tracking to Kyoto and 2020: Australia’s Greenhouse Emissions Trends 1990 to 2008–2012 and 2020’ at http://www.climatechange.gov.au/government/~/media/publications/projections/tracking-to-kyoto-and-2020.ashx, p 48.

  62. 62.

    See about the role of art. 176 EC Treaty (now article 193 TFEU) in view of total harmonization Jan H. Jans, Hans H.B. Vedder, European Environmental Law, 3rd ed. (Groningen: Europa Law Publishing, 2008), 107. See also the recent interesting opinion of AG Kokott in case 378/08.

  63. 63.

    Jans and Vedder take a contrary position, see p. 108–109.

  64. 64.

    See the instructive overview by Franz Reimer, “Ansätze zur Erhöhung der Energieeffizienz im Europarecht – eine kritische Bestandsaufnahme,” in Europäisches Klimaschutzrecht, ed. Schulze-Fielitz and Müller (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2009), 147.

  65. 65.

    http://www.climatechange.gov.au/minister/wong/2009/media-releases/September/mr20090930.aspx.

  66. 66.

    Directive 2003/87/EC.

  67. 67.

    COM(2003) 830 and COM(2005)703 see http://www.epa.ie/whatwedo/climate/etscheme/naps/.

  68. 68.

    Stromeinspeisungsgesetz (law on feeding electricity from renewable resources into the public grid) and the Renewable Energy Sources Act (EEG) of 2008.

  69. 69.

    Section 15 EEWärmeG.

  70. 70.

    An annual deposit of 500 million euros is available up to 2012 to promote energy efficiency in buildings.

  71. 71.

    Judgment No. 92/2006 of 7 June 2006 on the Walloon Regional Act to implement Directive 2003/87/EC.

  72. 72.

    IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, UN World Climate Council, 2007): Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) on Climate Change.

  73. 73.

    EU Commission white paper of 1 April 2009, Adapting to Climate Change: Towards a European Framework for Action, COM(2009) 147 final.

  74. 74.

    Commission staff working document accompanying the white paper: Adapting to Climate Change of 1 April 2009, SEC(2009) 388 final.

  75. 75.

    http://www.climatechange.gov.au/publications/adaptation/position-paper.aspx.

  76. 76.

    Engaging our Pacific Neighbours on Climate Change: Australia’s Approach, Commonwealth of Australia, 2009 (at http://www.climatechange.gov.au/government/~/media/publications/international/engaging-pacific-neighbours.ashx).

  77. 77.

    WRR, Klimaatstrategie – tussen ambitie en realisme, rapporten aan de regering nr. 47, 8 juni 2006, see http://www.wrr.nl.

  78. 78.

    VROM, The Netherlands’ Report on demonstrable progress under article 3.2 of the Kyoto Protocol, December 2005.

  79. 79.

    Deltawet waterveiligheid en zoetwatervoorziening, Second Chamber 2009–2010, dossier 32 304.

  80. 80.

    Evaluation of the Implementation of Finland’s National Strategy for Adaptation to Climate Change 2009. Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry 4a/2009, p. 3 and 6.

  81. 81.

    Dublin City Council’s strategy is available at http://www.dublincity.ie/YourCouncil/CouncilPublications/Documents/Climate_Change_Strategy_as_adopted_by_City_Council_in_May_2008_.doc.

  82. 82.

    Acts of 21 May 2003 and 7 September 2005.

  83. 83.

    As required by 2009 Act, s.53.

  84. 84.

    Lenticchia Lens esculentum (culinaria), various types of broad beans (Vicia faba major, Vicia faba minor), Lupines (Lupinus albus e Lupinus angustifolius), barley (Hordeum vulgare), chick peas (Cicer arietinum), artichoke (Cynara scolymus), Brassica (Brassica carinata) and Carthamus (Carthamus tinctorius).

  85. 85.

    EU Bird and Habitat Directives 79/409/EC and 92/43/EC.

  86. 86.

    Climate Change Strategy 2007, 31–32.

  87. 87.

    The Rossby Centre Atmosphere-Ocean model RCAO.

  88. 88.

    As a particularly Finnish characteristic in future flooding events includes land uplift due to postglacial rebound, whereby channel gradients will decrease significantly, as uneven land uplift will change relative elevations. The highest predicted land uplift rate, i.e. up to 90 cm/100a, along the coastal areas of Western Finland will also affect estuary formations in combination with erosion –transportation –sedimentation processes.

  89. 89.

    The MOSE is designed according to a precautionary policy to deal with an increase in the sea up to 60 cm, then higher than the latest estimates reported in the 4th IPCC report, which indicated an increase in the sea level, over the next 100 years, between 18 and 59 cm.

  90. 90.

    Climate and World Heritage. http://whc.unesco.org/en/­climatechange. 27.10.2009 and UNESCO: Disasters Preparedness and Mitigation, UNESCO’s role, 2007: http://unescdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001504/150435/e.pdf. 27.10.2009.

  91. 91.

    http://www.environment.gov.au/heritage/publications/­climatechange/pubs/worldheritage-climatechange.pdf; http://www.climatechange.gov.au/~/media/publications/adaptation/nrs-report.ashx.

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  1. Faculty of Law, University of Helsinki, 4, FI 00014, Helsinki, Finland

    Erkki J. Hollo

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  1. Law School, George Washington University, H Street 2000, Washington, 20052, District of Columbia, USA

    Karen B. Brown

  2. Washington College of Law, American University, Massachusetts Ave. NW., 4801, Washington, 20016, District of Columbia, USA

    David V. Snyder

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Hollo, E.J. (2012). Climate Change and the Law. In: Brown, K., Snyder, D. (eds) General Reports of the XVIIIth Congress of the International Academy of Comparative Law/Rapports Généraux du XVIIIème Congrès de l’Académie Internationale de Droit Comparé. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-2354-2_11

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