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Assisting Victims of Terrorism pp 73–141Cite as

Needs of Victims of Terrorism

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Abstract

Chapter 1 showed a number of key features of terrorism that are relevant for its victims, and the previous chapter discussed the relevant international instruments relating to victims of crime and terrorism. It shows the importance of instruments directed to more general victimisation of crime for victims of terrorism. In particular we would like to stress the following points:

The existing international instruments covering victims of terrorism closely resemble victims of crime. The comparison of the Council of Europe guidelines concerning victims of terrorism with instruments concerning victims of crime, like the EU Framework Decision, the UN Declaration and the Council of Europe Recommendation on Victims’ Assistance reveal that the specified rights are very similar. Both the guidelines and the victims of crime instruments contain provisions relating to the same rights.

This close resemblance begs the question whether this implies that provisions for victims of crime suffice for victims of terrorism. This is suggested by Recommendation 2006 (8) of the Council of Europe concerning victim assistance. It notes that, although the victim of terrorism has been prioritised in various countries, the needs of victims of terrorism are essentially the same as those of victims of crime, which may be well be taken to imply that structures in place for victims of crime suffice for service delivery to victims of terrorism. But, having said this, the previous chapter also suggests a number of peculiarities of terrorism, which may be relevant for drafting international standards concerning its victims. The two main features are discussed briefly.

Terrorist acts specifically target secondary victims as well as primary victims. Terrorism may be described as politically motivated violence that is perpetrated by individuals, groups or state-sponsored agents and intended to bring about feelings of terror and helplessness in a population in order to influence decision making and to change behaviour. According to Hoffmann it is specifically designed to have far-reaching psychological effects beyond the immediate victim(s) or object of the terrorist attack, in particular to instil fear within and thereby intimidate a wider ‘target audience’ that might include a rival ethnic or religious group, an entire country, a national government or political party, or public opinion in general. The Geneva Declaration on Terrorism of 1987 confirms this by asserting that ‘the distinguishing feature of terrorism is fear and this fear is stimulated by threats of indiscriminate and horrifying forms of violence directed against ordinary people everywhere.’ Discussing the full scope of the consequences of terrorism therefore means discussion of the impact on this wider group, frequently termed either tertiary or vicarious victims.

Terrorist offences often have a high impact on their primary victims. To reach the goal of terrorising the larger target audience, terrorists increasingly resort to tactics intended to make as many casualties and fatalities as possible. Moreover, their targets are regularly symbolic in nature. The nature of terrorism may make meeting victims’ needs more difficult. In the case mass of victimisation, for example, it will require additional effort to reach and service victims’ immediate needs.

This chapter connects the legal analysis of the existing legal instruments relating to victims of terrorism to the ongoing empirical research into these victims. Specifically this implies that we will review the evidence concerning the consequences of terrorism for direct and indirect victims and their subsequent needs. We will link these consequences and needs to the legal instruments by first developing a victimological framework for victims of crime which describes needs and using this framework to analyse the research findings. The relevant question in this analysis is in what way, if any, the needs of victims of terrorism differ from victims of crime. The use of the victimological framework for victims of crime allows us to ascertain with more precision what the special needs of victims of terrorism are compared to this larger group. This has the added advantage of allowing us to draw on the international instruments as described in Chapter 2, but also the provisions in place for victims of crime in our recommendations.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    See Albrecht, H.J. & Kilchling, M. (2007), Victims of Terrorism Policies: Should Victims of Terrorism be Treated differently?, European Journal of Criminal Policy and Research 13, 13–31.

  2. 2.

    See Moghaddam (2005). The staircase to terrorism: A psychological exploration. American Psychologist, 60(2), 161–169; 2007. Moghaddam (2007). The staircase to terrorism: A psychological exploration. In: Bongar, B., Brown, L.M., Beutler, L.E., Breckenridge, J.N. and Zimbardo, P.G. (eds.). Psychology of Terrorism, Oxford, Oxford University Press.

  3. 3.

    Hoffman (1998). Inside terrorism. New York, Columbia University Press.

  4. 4.

    The Geneva Declaration on Terrorism, UN General Assembly Doc. A/42/307, 29 May 1987.

  5. 5.

    See Maslow, A. (1948). Some theoretical consequences of basic need gratification. Journal of Personality. 16(4), 402–416.

  6. 6.

    See Alexander, D.A.A. (2005). Early mental health intervention after disasters. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment 11: 12–18.

  7. 7.

    See e.g. Litz, B., Bryant, R. and Adler, A. (2002). Early Intervention for trauma: current status and future directions. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice. 9(2), 112–134. McNally, R.J., Bryant, R.A. and Ehlers, A. (2003). Does early psychological intervention promote recovery from posttraumatic stress? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4, 45–79. Parker, C.I., Everly, G.S., Jr., Barnett, D., and Links, J. (2006). Establishing evidence-informed core intervention competencies in psychological first aid for public health personnel. International Journal of Emergency Mental Health.

  8. 8.

    See e.g. Wemmers, J.J.M. (1996). Victims in the criminal justice system. The Hague, The Netherlands, WODC/Kugler.

  9. 9.

    See the work by Tom Tyler and associates, amongst others, Tyler, T.R. (1990). Why People Obey the Law. New Haven, USA, Yale University Press. Tyler T.R. and Lind E.A. (1992). A relational model of authority in groups. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology. 25: 115–191, Tyler T.R. and Huo Y.J. (2002). Trust in the Law. New York, Russell Sage Found and Tyler, T.R. (2006). Psychological perspectives on legitimacy and legitimation. Annual Review of Psychology. 57, 375–400.

  10. 10.

    See e.g. Goodey, J. (2005). Victims and Victimology. Research, Policy, Practice. Harlow, UK, Pearson.

  11. 11.

    See e.g. Strang, H. (2002) Repair or Revenge: Victims and Restorative Justice. Oxford, Oxford University Press. and Malsch, M., (2004) De aanvaarding en naleving van rechtsnormen door burgers: participatie, informatieverschaffing en bejegening. In: de Beer P.T. and Schuyt C.J.M. (eds.). Bijdragen aan Waarden en Normen, Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press.

  12. 12.

    See specifically Winje, D. (1998). Cognitive Coping: The psychological significance of knowing what happened in the traumatic event. Journal of Traumatic Stress. 11(4), 627–643. And more generally Ehlers, A. and Clark, D.M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behavior Research and Therapy, 38, 319–345.

  13. 13.

    See for instance Minow, Martha (1998). Between Vengeance and Forgiveness: Facing History after Genocide and Mass Violence. Boston, Beacon. Gibson, James L. (2002). Truth, justice, and reconciliation: Judging the fairness of amnesty in South Africa. American Journal of Political Science. 46(3), 540–556 and Gibson, J.L. (2004). Does truth lead to reconciliation? Testing the causal assumptions of the South African Truth and Reconciliation Process. American Journal of Political Science. 48(2), 201–217.

  14. 14.

    Herek, G., Cogan, J.C. and Gillis, J.R. (2002). Victim experiences in hate crimes based on sexual orientation. Journal of social issues. 58(2), 319–339.

  15. 15.

    Craig-Henderson, K. and Sloan, L.R. (2003). After the hate. Helping psychologists help victims of racist hate crime. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice. 10(4), 481–490.

  16. 16.

    Pemberton, A., Winkel, F.W. and Groenhuijsen, M.S. (2007). Taking victims seriously in restorative justice. International Perspectives in Victimology, 3(1), 4–14. illustrate this in the case of restorative justice procedures.

  17. 17.

    Allan, A., Allan, M.M., Kaminer, D. and Stein, D.J. (2006). Exploration of the association between apology and forgiveness amongst victims of human rights violations. Behavioral Sciences and the Law. 24(1), 87–102.

  18. 18.

    Most commonly associated with Shapland J., Wilmore, J. and Duff, P. (1985). Victims in the Criminal Justice System, Cambridge, Gower.

  19. 19.

    E.g. Strang (2002).

  20. 20.

    See again Tyler (1990) or Röhl, K. (1997). Procedural justice: introduction and overview. In Röhl, K.F. and Machura S. (eds.). Procedural Justice, Aldershot, Ashgate.

  21. 21.

    E.g. Orth, U. (2002). Secondary Victimization of Crime Victims by Criminal Proceedings, Social Justice Research, 15(4), 313–325.

  22. 22.

    Herman, J.L. (2003) The mental health of crime victims: Impact of legal intervention. Journal of Traumatic Stress. 16(2), 159–166.

  23. 23.

    See e.g. Goodey (2005).

  24. 24.

    See for instance Frazier, P.A., and Haney, B. (1996). Sexual assault cases in the legal system: Police, prosecutor, and victim perspectives. Law and Human Behavior. 20: 607–628. Campbell, R.C. (1998). The community response to rape: Victims’ experiences with the legal, medical, and mental health systems. American Journal of Community Psychology. 26, 355–379. Temkin, J. (2002). Rape and the legal process (2nd edition). Oxford, Oxford University Press.

  25. 25.

    See concerning stalking for example Mullen, P.E., Pathé, M., and Purcell, R. (2000). Stalkers and Their Victims. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, concerning homicide, Rock, P. (1998). After Homicide, Oxford, Clarendon Press. Further evidence of the latter is the experience of self-help groups of those bereaved by homicide, collected in Spungen, D. (1998). Homicide: the Hidden Victims. Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.

  26. 26.

    A point particularly clearly demonstrated by Cheon and Regehr. Cheon, A. and Regehr C. (2006). Restorative justice models in cases of intimate partner violence: Reviewing the evidence. Victims and Offenders. 1(4): 369–394.

  27. 27.

    Edwards, I. (2004). An ambiguous participant: The crime victim and criminal justice decision-making. British Journal of Criminology. 44(6), 967–982. Wemmers J. and Cyr. K. (2004). Victims’ perspective on restorative justice. How much involvement are victims looking for? International Review of Victimology. 11: 1–16.

  28. 28.

    And this is further compounded by the crime, the context and the personal view of the victim him or herself.

  29. 29.

    See Roberts, J.V., and Erez, E. (2004). Communication in sentencing: exploring the expressive function of victim impact statements. International Review of Victimology. 10: 223–244 and Pemberton, A. (2005). Het spreekrecht en slachtoffers: vergelding of herstel? Tijdschrift voor Herstelrecht. 5(3), 34–44.

  30. 30.

    A good conceptual overview of the main issues, see Groenhuijsen, M.S. (2000). Victim-offender mediation: legal and procedural safeguards. Experiments and legislation in some European jurisdictions. In: The European Forum for Victim-Offender Mediation and Restorative Justice, Victim-Offender Mediation in Europe. Making Restorative Justice work, Leuven, Belgium, Leuven University Press.

  31. 31.

    A recurrent theme in the work of Ashworth, see e.g. Ashworth, A. (2000). Victims’ rights, defendants’ rights and criminal procedure. In Crawford A. and Goodey J. (eds.). Integrating a Victim Perspective Within Criminal Justice. Aldershot, Darmouth Publishing, pp. 185–206.

  32. 32.

    Wittebrood, K. (2006). Slachtoffers van criminaliteit. Den Haag, Sociaal Cultureel Planbureau.

  33. 33.

    Orth, U. (2004). Does perpetrator punishment satisfy victims’ feelings of revenge? Aggressive Behavior. 30, 62–70.

  34. 34.

    Winkel, F.W. (1999) and Winkel, F.W. (2002). Slachtofferhulp bij hardnekkige klachten. Over visie, witte beren, stroop en tegenpolen. Inaugural lecture, Free University Amsterdam.

  35. 35.

    The case of domestic violence is a common example, for example Stubbs, J. (2002). Domestic violence and women’s safety: Feminist challenges to restorative justice. In Strang, H. and Braithwaite, J. (eds.). Restorative Justice and Family Violence. New York, Cambridge University Press, pp. 42–61.

  36. 36.

    As is illustrated by Rock’s examination of co-victims of homicide. see Rock, P. (1998). After Homicide. Oxford, Clarendon Press.

  37. 37.

    As is evidenced by the reviews by Miller and Vidmar. See Miller, D.T. (2001). Disrespect and the experience of injustice. Annual Review of Psychology. 52, 527–553 and Vidmar, N. (2001). Retribution and revenge. In: Sanders, J. and Hamilton, V.L. (eds.) Handbook of Justice Research in Law. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.

  38. 38.

    Campbell, J. (2002). Health consequences of intimate partner violence. The Lancet. 359, 1331–1336.

  39. 39.

    See again Shapland et al. (1985) and Strang (2002).

  40. 40.

    See Ehlers and Clark (2000) and Foa, E.B. and Rothbaum, B.O. (1998). Treating the Trauma of Rape: Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for PTSD. New York, Guildford.

  41. 41.

    See for example Prigerson, H., and Jacobs, S. (2001). Traumatic grief as a distinct disorder: A rationale, census criteria, and a preliminary empirical test. In M. Stroebe, R. O. Hansson, W. Stroebe, and Schut H. (eds.). Handbook of Bereavement Research: Consequences, Coping, and Care. Washington, DC, American Psychological Association. Stroebe, M.S. (2001). Bereavement Research and Theory: Retrospective and Prospective American Behavioral Scientist. 44(5), 854–865 and Peterson-Armour, M. (2002). Experiences of co-victims of homicide. Trauma, Violence and Abuse. 3(2), 109–124.

  42. 42.

    See again Foa and Rothboam (1998).

  43. 43.

    See Craig-Henderson and Sloane (2003). The ultimate attribution error refers to the process in which people attribute socially undesirable actions of out-group members to internal factors, such as motives or dispositions of all out-group members, see Pettigrew, T.E. (1979). The ultimate attribution error: Extending Allport’s cognitive analysis of prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 5, 461–476.

  44. 44.

    Brewin, C.R., Andrews, B. and Valentine, J.D. (2000). Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. Journal of consulting and Clinical Psychology. 69, 748–766.

  45. 45.

    Maercker, A., and Mehr, A. (2006). What if victims read a newspaper report about their victimization? A study on the relationship to ptsd symptoms in crime victims. European Psychologist. 11, 137–142.

  46. 46.

    Dolan, P., Loomes, G., Peasgood, T. and Tsuchiya, A. (2005). Estimating the intangible victim costs of violent crime. British Journal of Criminology, 45, 958–976.

  47. 47.

    See Braithwaite, J. (1999). Restorative justice. Assessing optimistic and pessimistic accounts. In: Tonry, M. (ed.). Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, 25. Chicago. University of Chicago Press, and Strang 2002.

  48. 48.

    Pemberton, A., Winkel, F.W. and Groenhuijsen, M.S. (2007). Taking victims seriously in restorative justice. International Perspectives in Victimology. 3(1), 4–14. See also Tripp, T.M., Bies, R.J. and Aquino, K. (2007). A vigilante model of justice: Revenge, reconciliation, forgiveness and avoidance, Social Justice Research, 20(1): 10–34.

  49. 49.

    For a review see Miller, D.T. (2001). Disrespect and the experience of injustice. Annual Review of Psychology. 52, 527–553.

  50. 50.

    Ditton, J., Bannister, J., Gilchrist, E. and Farrall, S. (1999). Afraid or angry? Recalibrating the ‘fear’ of crime. International Review of Victimology. 6: 83–99 and Ditton, J., Farrall, S., Bannister, J., Gilchrist, E. and Pease, K. (1999). Reactions to victimisation. Why has anger been ignored? Crime Prevention and Community Safety: an International Journal 1(3), 37–54.

  51. 51.

    See Worthington, E. L., Jr., and Scherer, M. (2004). Forgiveness as an emotion focused coping strategy that can reduce health risks and promote health resilience: Theory, review and hypotheses. Psychology and Health. 19, 385–405. More generally on coping, see Lazarus, R. (1993). Coping theory and research: past, present and future. Psychosomatic Medicine. 55, 234–247.

  52. 52.

    See Von Hirsch, A. (1993). Censure and Sanctions, Oxford, Clarendon Press.

  53. 53.

    See the research by John Darley and colleagues, for example Darley, J.M. and Pittman, T.S. (2003). The psychology of compensatory and retributive justice. Personality and Social Psychology Review. 7, 324–336. Carlsmith, K.M., Darley, J.M., and Robinson, P.H. (2002). Why do we punish? Deterrence and just deserts as motives for punishment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 83, 1–16. Carlsmith, K.M. (2006). The roles of retribution and utility in determining punishment. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 42, 437–451.

  54. 54.

    See for example Worthington and Scherer (2004); McCullough, M.E., Worthington, E.L., and Rachal, K.C. (1997). Interpersonal forgiving in close relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 73, 321–336. and Exline, J.J. and Baumeister, R.F. (2000). Expressing forgiveness and repentance: benefits and barriers. In: McCullough M.E. and Thoresen C.E. (eds.). Forgiveness Theory: Research and Practice. London, Guildford Press.

  55. 55.

    An overview of research may be found in Karremans, J.C., Van Lange, P.A.M., Ouwerkerk, J.W., and Kluwer, E.S. (2003). When forgiving enhances psychological well being: The role of interpersonal commitment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 84, 1011–1026.

  56. 56.

    As shown in research by Karremans, J.C. and Van Lange, P.A.M. (2005). Does activating justice help or hurt in promoting forgiveness? Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 41, 290–297. And Tripp et al. (2007).

  57. 57.

    See Hill, P.C., Exline, J.J., and Cohen, A.B. (2005). The social psychology of justice and forgiveness in civil and organizational settings. In: Worthington, E.L. Jr. (ed.). Handbook of Forgiveness. New York, Routledge.

  58. 58.

    Again Tripp et al. (2007).

  59. 59.

    Orth, U. and Wieland, E. (2006). Anger, hostility, and posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults: a meta-analysis, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 74(4), 698–706.

  60. 60.

    Again see the ‘just deserts’ literature, von Hirsch (1993).

  61. 61.

    For an overview see Sherman, L.W. and Strang, H. (2007). Restorative Justice. The evidence. London, UK, The Smith Institute. For a critical discussion of this overview, see Winkel, F.W. (2007). Post-traumatic anger: Missing link in the wheel of misfortune. Inaugural lecture Tilburg University.

  62. 62.

    See for example Zedner, L. (2002). Victims. In: Maguire, M., Morgan, R., and Reiner, R. (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Criminology (3rd edition), Oxford, Oxford University Press.

  63. 63.

    See the work by Marc Groenhuijsen and colleagues, e.g. Groenhuijsen, M.S., and Pemberton, A. (2007). Het slachtoffer in de strafrechtelijke procedure: De implementatie van het Europese kaderbesluit. Justitiële Verkenningen. 33(3) 69–92. Van Dijk, J.J.M. and Groenhuijsen, M.S. (2007). Benchmarking victim policies in the Framework of European Union Law. In Walklate, S. (ed.). Handbook of Victims and Victimology. Cullumpton, Devon, UK, Willan Publishing.

  64. 64.

    See the recent results of the International Crime Survey, Van Dijk, J.J.M., Manchin, R., Van Kesteren, J. et al. (2007). The burden of crime in the European Union, Gallup Europe, Brussels.

  65. 65.

    Winkel, F.W. (2002). Slachtofferhulp bij hardnekkige klachten. Over visie, witte beren, stroop en tegenpolen. Inaugural Lecture, Free University, Amsterdam.

  66. 66.

    Winkel, F.W. (1999). Repeat victimization and trauma susceptibility: Prospective and longitudinal analyses. In: Van Dijk, J.J.M., van Kaam, R.G.H. and Wemmers, J-A.M. (eds.). Caring for Crime Victims. Monsey, New York, Criminal Justice Press, and Winkel 2002.

  67. 67.

    Van Dijk et al. (2007).

  68. 68.

    See Aebi, M.F., Aromaa, K., Aubuson de Carvalay, B. et al. (2006). European Source Book of Crime and Criminal Justice Statistics, third edition, The Hague, Boom Juridische Uitgevers.

  69. 69.

    Bogen, K.T. and Jones, E.D. (2006). Risks of Mortality and Morbidity from Worldwide Terrorism: 1968–2004, Risk Analysis. 26(1), 45–59.

  70. 70.

    Peleg K, Aharonson-Daniel L, Stein M, Shapira SC. (2003). Terror – severe form of external injury: Pattern of injury in hospitalized terrorist victims. American Journal of Emergency Medicine. 21: 258–262.

  71. 71.

    Hoffman, B. (1998). Inside Terrorism. New York, Columbia University Press.

  72. 72.

    Blanchard, E.B., Hickling, E.J., Mitnick, N., Taylor, A.E., Loos, W.R., and Buckley, T.C. (1995). The impact of severity of physical injury and perception of life threat in the development of post-traumatic stress disorder in motor vehicle accident victims. Behaviour Research and Therapy. 33(5), 529–534.

  73. 73.

    Fraguas, D., Teran, S., Conejo-Galindo, O. et al. (2006). Posttraumatic stress disorder in victims of the March 11 attacks in Madrid admitted to a hospital emergency room: 6-month follow-up. European Psychiatry. 21, 143–151.

  74. 74.

    Bonanno, G.A. (2004). Loss, trauma, and human resilience: Have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events? American Psychologist. 59, 20–28.Bonanno, G.A. (2005). Resilience in the Face of Potential Trauma, Current Directions in Psychological science. 14(3), 135–138.

  75. 75.

    Bonanno, G.A., Rennicke, C., and Dekel, S. (2005). Self-enhancement among high-exposure survivors of the September 11th terrorist attack: Resilience or social maladjustment? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 88(6), 984–998. Bonanno. G.A., Galea, S. and Vlahov, D.A. (2006). Psychological resilience after disaster. Psychological Science. 17(3), 181–186.

  76. 76.

    E.g. Bonanno (2005).

  77. 77.

    Tucker, P.M., Pfefferbaum, B., North, C.S., et al. (2007). Physiologic reactivity despite emotional resilience several years after direct exposure to terrorism. American Journal of Psychiatry. 164: 230–235.

  78. 78.

    See the large scale epidemiological reviews by Kessler, R. C., Sonnega, A., Bromet, E., Hughes, M., and Nelson, C.B. (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry. 52, 1048–1060. and Breslau, N., Peterson, E.L., Schultz, L.R., and Lucia, V.C. (2004b) Estimating posttraumatic stress disorder in the community: Lifetime perspective and the impact of typical traumatic events. Psychological Medicine. 34: 889–898.

  79. 79.

    E.g. Ehlers and Clark (2000).

  80. 80.

    See Denkers, A.J.M. and Winkel, F.W. (1996). Reactions to criminal victimization: a field study of the cognitive effects on victims and members of their social network. In: Graham Davies, Mary McMurran, Clare Wilson and Sally Lloyd-Bostock (eds.). Psychology, Law, and Criminal Justice: International Developments in Research and Practice. De Gruyter, Berlin/New York, pp. 374–384.

  81. 81.

    See the research into victims of stalking and other forms of extreme harassment, e.g. Mullen, P.E., Pathé, M., Purcell, R. (2000). Stalkers and Their Victims. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, and the research into intimate partner violence, e.g. Campbell (2002).

  82. 82.

    As reviewed in Beutler, L.E., Reyes, G., Franco, Z. Housley, J. (2007). The need for proficient mental health professionals in the study of terrorism. In: Bongar, B., Brown, L.M., Beutler, L.E., Breckenridge, J.N. and Zimbardo, P.G. (eds.). Psychology of Terrorism, Oxford, Oxford University Press.

  83. 83.

    Orth and Wieland (2006).

  84. 84.

    Sukhodolsky, D.G., Golub, A., and Cromwell, E.N. (2001). Development and validation of the anger rumination scale. Personality and Individual Differences. 31, 689–700.

  85. 85.

    Slovic, P. (2002). Terrorism as hazard. A new species of trouble. Risk Analysis. 22(3), 425–426.

  86. 86.

    See again Ehlers and Clark (2000).

  87. 87.

    Butler, L.D., Morland, L.A. and Leskin, G.A. (2007). Resilience in the face of terrorism. In: Bongar, B., Brown, L.M., Beutler, L.E., Breckenridge, J.N. and Zimbardo, P.G. (eds.). Psychology of Terrorism, Oxford, Oxford University Press.

  88. 88.

    See Breckenridge, J.N. and Zimbardo, P.G. (2007). The strategy of terrorism and the psychology of Mass-Mediated fear. In: Bongar, B., Brown, L.M., Beutler, L.E., Breckenridge, J.N. and Zimbardo, P.G. (eds.). Psychology of Terrorism, Oxford, Oxford University Press.

  89. 89.

    Again Slovic 2002.

  90. 90.

    Norris, F.H., Friedman, M.J., Watson, P.J., Byrne, C.M., Díaz, E., and Kaniasty, K. (2002). 60,000 disaster victims speak: part I. An empirical review of the empirical literature, 1981–2001. Psychiatry. 65(3), 207–239.

  91. 91.

    Galea, S., Nandi, A. and Vlahov, D. (2005). The epidemiology of post-traumatic stress disorder after disasters. Epidemiological Reviews. 27, 78–91.

  92. 92.

    Gidron, Y. (2002). Posttraumatic stress disorder after terrorist attacks. A review. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 190, 118–121.

  93. 93.

    Laugharne, J., Janca, A. and Widiger, T. (2007). Posttraumatic stress disorder and terrorism. 5 years after 9/11. Current Opinion in Psychiatry. 20, 36–41.

  94. 94.

    Miguel-Tobal, J.J., Cano-Videl, A. Gonzales-Ordi, H. (2006) PTSD and depression after the Madrid March 11 train bombings. Journal of Traumatic Stress. 19(1), 69–80.

  95. 95.

    Shalev, A.Y. and Freedman, S. (2005). PTSD following terrorist attacks: a prospective evaluation. American Journal of Psychiatry. 162, 1188–1191.

  96. 96.

    Bleich, A., Gelkopf, M., and Solomon, Z. (2003). Exposure to terrorism, stress related mental health symptoms and coping behaviours under a nationally representative sample in Israel. Journal of the American Medical Association. 290(5), 612–620.

  97. 97.

    Galea, S., Ahern, J., Resnick, H., et al. (2002). Psychological sequelae of the September 11 terrorist attacks in New York City. New England Journal of Medicine. 346: 982–987. Miguel-Tobal et al. (2006).

  98. 98.

    Boscarino, J.A., Adams, R.E. and Galea, S. (2006). Alcohol use in New York after the terrorist attacks: A study of the effects of psychological trauma on drinking behaviour. Addictive Behaviours. 31, 606–621.

  99. 99.

    Whalley, M.G. and Brewin, C. (2007). Mental health following terrorist attack. British Journal of Psychiatry. 190, 94–96.

  100. 100.

    Orth and Wieland (2006), see also Novaco, R.W., and Chemtob, C.M. (2002). Anger and combatrelated posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress. 15, 123–132.

  101. 101.

    Smith, T.W., Rasinski, K.A. and Toce, M. (2001). America rebounds. A national study of public response to the September 11th terrorist attacks. Chicago, NORC.

  102. 102.

    See Shalev and Freedman (2005), Bleich et al. (2003), Bleich, A., Gelkopf, M. Melamed, Y. and Solomon, Z. (2006). Mental health and resiliency following 44 months of terrorism: a survey of an Israeli national representative sample. BMC Medicine 2006, 4:21 doi:10.1186/1741-7015-4-21; Shalev, A.J., Tuval, R., Frankiel-Fishman, S. et al. (2006). Psychological Responses to Continuous Terror: A Study of Two Communities in Israel. American Journal of Psychiatry. 163, 667–673; Soloman Z. and Lavi T. (2005). Israeli youth in the second Intifada: PTSD and future orientation. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 44, 1167–1175; Lavi T. and Soloman, Z. (2005). Palestinian youth in the second Intifada: PTSD and future orientation. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 44(11), 1176–1183.

  103. 103.

    E.g. Galea et al. (2005); Laugharne et al. (2007).

  104. 104.

    Shalev et al. (2006).

  105. 105.

    Compare Soloman and Lavi (2005) and Lavi and Soloman (2005).

  106. 106.

    Bleich et al. (2006).

  107. 107.

    Bleich et al. (2003).

  108. 108.

    As is shown by figures from the Israeli Defense Forces, quoted in Merari, A. (2007). Psychological aspects of suicide terrorism. In: Bongar, B., Brown, L.M., Beutler, L.E., Breckenridge, J.N. and Zimbardo, P.G. (eds.). Psychology of Terrorism, Oxford, Oxford University Press.

  109. 109.

    See Atran, S. (2003). Genesis of suicide terrorism. Science. 299(5612), 1534–1539.

  110. 110.

    See Sullivan, G.R. and Bongar, B. (2007). Psychological consequences of actual or threatenened CBRNE terrorism. In: Bongar, B., Brown, L.M., Beutler, L.E., Breckenridge, J.N. and Zimbardo, P.G. (eds.). Psychology of Terrorism, Oxford, Oxford University Press.

  111. 111.

    See Hoffman, B. (2002). Rethinking terrorism and counterterrorism since 9/11. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism. 25, 303–316.

  112. 112.

    See McMains, M.J. and Mullins, W.C. (2001). Crisis negotiations: managing critical incidents and hostage situations in law enforcement and corrections (2nd edition). Cincinnati, Ohio, Anderson.

  113. 113.

    See Van der Ploeg, H.M. and Kleijn, W.C. (1989). Being held hostage in the Netherlands: a study of long term aftereffects. Journal of Traumatic Stress. 2(2), 153–169.

  114. 114.

    See Van der Ploeg and Kleijn 1989.

  115. 115.

    See Wilson, M. (2003). The psychology of hostage taking. In: Silke, A. (ed.). Terrorists, Victims and Society: Psychological Perspectives on Terrorism and Its Consequences. Chichester, UK, Wiley. Giebels, E., Noelanders, S. and Vervaeke, G. (2005). The Hostage Experience: implications for negotiation strategies. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy. 12, 241–253.

  116. 116.

    See Wilson (2003) and Giebels et al. (2005).

  117. 117.

    Speckhard, A., Tarabrina, N., Krasnov, V., and Mufel, N. (2005). Stockholm effects and psychological responses to captivity in hostages held by suicide terrorists. Traumatology, the International Journal. 11(2), 121–141. Speckhard, A., Tarabrina, N., Krasnov, V., and Mufel, N. (2005). Posttraumatic and acute stress responses in hostages held by suicide terrorists in the takeover of a Moscow theater. Traumatology, the International Journal. 11(1), 3–21. Moscardino, U., Axia, G., Scrimin, S. and Capello, F. (2007). Narratives from caregivers of children surviving the terrorist attack in Beslan: Issues of health, culture, and resilience. Social Science & Medicine. 64, 1776–1787.

  118. 118.

    E.g. Herman, J. L. (1992). Complex PTSD: A Syndrome in Survivors of Prolonged and Repeated Trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress. 5(3), 377–391.

  119. 119.

    Engdahl, B., Dikel, T. N., Eberly, R., and Blank Jr., A. (1997). Posttraumatic stress disorder in a community group of former prisoners of war: A normative response to severe trauma. American Journal of Psychiatry. 154, 1576–1581.

  120. 120.

    See the research by Basoglu and colleagues. Basoglu, M., Paker, M., Paker, O., Ozmen, E., Marks, I., Incesu, C., Sahin, D., Sarimurat, N. (1994) Psychological effects of torture: A comparison of tortured with non-tortured political activists in Turkey. American Journal of Psychiatry 151:76-81. Basoglu M & Paker M. (1995). Severity of trauma as predictor of long-term psychological status in survivors of torture. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 9:339-350.

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    For example Campbell (2002), or Golding, J. M. (1999). Intimate partner violence as a risk factor for mental disorders: a meta-analysis. Journal of Family Violence 14, 99–132.

  122. 122.

    E.g. Bonanno, G.A. and Kaltmann, S. (1999). Toward an integrative perspective on bereavement. Psychological Bulletin. 125, 760–776.

  123. 123.

    Bonanno et al. (2005).

  124. 124.

    Prigerson, H.G., Shear, M.K., Jacobs, S.C., Reynolds, C.F., III, Maciejewski, P.K., Davidson, J.R., et al. (1999). Consensus criteria for traumatic grief. A preliminary empirical test. British Journal of Psychiatry. 174, 67–73. Boelen, P.A., Van den Hout, M.A. and Van den Bout, J. (2006). A cognitive-behavioral conceptualization of complicated grief. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice. 13, 109–128. Ehlers, A. (2006). Understanding and treating complicated grief. What can we learn from post-traumatic stress disorder? Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 13, 135–140.

  125. 125.

    Sanders, C.M. (1993). Risk factors in bereavement outcome. In Stroebe, M.S., Stroebe, W. and Hansson, R.O. (eds.). Handbook of Bereavement: Theory, Research and Intervention, Cambridge, Cambridige University Press.

  126. 126.

    Kaltman, S., and Bonanno, G.A. (2003). Trauma and bereavement: Examining the impact of sudden and violent deaths. Journal of Anxiety Disorders. 17, 131–147.

  127. 127.

    See Neria, Y., Gross, R., Litz, B., Maguen, S. et al. (2007). Prevalence and psychological correlates of complicated grief among bereaved adults 2.5–3.5 years after September 11th attacks. Journal of Traumatic Stress. 20(3), 251–262, see also Pfefferbaum, B., Call, J.A., Lensgraf, S.J. et al. (2001). Traumatic grief in a convenience sample of victims seeking support services after a terrorist incident. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry 13(1), 19–24.

  128. 128.

    See Dolan et al. (2005); Miller, T.R., Cohen, M.A., and Wiersema, B. (1996). Victim costs and consequences: A new look. Washington, DC: U.S. National Institute of Justice. and Brand, S. And Price N. (2000). The Economic Costs of Crime, Home Office Research Study, 217.

  129. 129.

    As was shown by Bogen and Davis (2006).

  130. 130.

    Kunreuther, H. and Michel-Kerjan, E. (2004). Challenges for terrorism risk insurance in the United States. Journal of Economic Perspectives. 18(4), 201–214.

  131. 131.

    See Brewin et al. (2000) and Ozer, E.J., Best, S.R., Lipsey, T.L., and Weiss, D.S. (2003). Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin. 129, 52–73.

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    Yehuda, R. ( 2002). Post-traumatic stress disorder. New England Journal of Medicine. 346, 108–114. McNally, R.J., Bryant, R.A. and Ehlers, A. (2003). Does early psychological intervention promote recovery from posttraumatic stress? Psychological Science in the Public Interest. 4, 45–79.

  133. 133.

    E.g. Beutler et al. (2007).

  134. 134.

    E.g. Tucker et al. (2007).

  135. 135.

    For a recent meta-analytic review see Olff, M. Langeland, W. Draijer, N. and Gersons, B.P.R. (2007). Gender differences in posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Bulletin. 133(2), 183–204.

  136. 136.

    Kessler et al. (1995).

  137. 137.

    Solomon, Z., Gelkopf, M., and Bleich, A. (2005). Is terror gender-blind? Gender differences in reaction to terror events. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology. 40, 947–954.

  138. 138.

    Cohen-Silver, R., Holman, E.A., McIntosh, D.E et al. (2002). Nationwide longitudinal study of psychological responses to September 11. Journal of the American Medical Association. 288(10), 1235–1244.

  139. 139.

    Grieger, T.A., Fullerton, C.S., and Ursano, R.J. (2003). Posttraumatic stress disorder, alcohol use, and perceived safety after the terrorist attack on the pentagon. Psychiatric Services. 54, 1380–1382.

  140. 140.

    Kawana, N., Ishimatsu, S., Matsui, Y., Tamki, S., and Kanda, K. (2005). The chronic posttraumatic stress symptoms in victims of Tokyo subway sarin gas attack. Traumatology, the International Journal. 11(2). And Verger P., Dab W., Lamping D.L., Loze J-I., Deschaseaux-Voinet C., Abenhaim L., and Rouillon F. (2004). The psychological impact of terrorism: an epidemiologic study of posttraumatic stress disorder and associated factors in victims of the 1995–1996 bombings in France. American Journal of Psychiatry.161, 1384–1389.

  141. 141.

    For overviews see Fremont, W.P. (2004). Childhood reactions to terrorism-induced trauma: a review of the past 10 years. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 43(4), 381–392; Pine, D.S., Costello, J. and Masten, A. (2005). Trauma, proximity and developmental psychopathology. The effects of war and terrorism on children. Neuropsychopharmacology. 30, 1781–1792. And Williams, R. (2006). The psychosocial consequences for children and young people who are exposed to terrorism, war, conflict and natural disasters. Current Opinion in Psychiatry. 19, 337–349.

  142. 142.

    See also Hoven, C.W., Duarte, C.S. Lucas, C.P. et al. (2005). Psychopathology among New York City Public School Children 6 Months After September 11. Archives of General Psychiatry. 62, 545–552 and Comer, J.S. and Kendall, P.C. (2007). Terrorism. The psychological impact on youth. Clinical Psychological Science and Practice. 14, 179–212.

  143. 143.

    Pfefferbaum, B., Call, J., and Sconzo, G. (1999). Mental health services for children in the first two years after the 1995 Oklahoma City terrorist bombing. Psychiatric Services. 50, 956–958.

  144. 144.

    E.g. Hoven et al. (2005).

  145. 145.

    E.g. Fremont (2004).

  146. 146.

    Norris et al. (2002); Fremont (2004).

  147. 147.

    See Solomon et al. (2007); Hoven et al. (2005); Pfefferbaum, B. Stuber, J. Galea, S. and Fairbrother, G. (2006). Panic reactions to terrorist attacks and probable posttraumatic stress disorder in adolescents. Journal of Traumatic Stress. 19(2), 217–228.

  148. 148.

    See Covell N.H., Donahue S.A, Allen G., et al. (2006). Use of Project Liberty counseling services over time by individuals in various risk categories. Psychiatric Services. 57, 1268–1270 and Fairbrother, G. Stuber, J., Galea, S. et al. (2004). Unmet need for counseling services by children in New York City after the September 11th attacks on the World Trade Center: Implications for pediatricians. Pediatrics. 113(5), 1367–1376.

  149. 149.

    See Stuber, J., Fairbrother, G., Galea, S. et al. (2002). Determinants of counseling for children in Manhattan after the September 11 attacks. Psychiatric Services. 53, 815–822. Pfefferbaum, B., Sconzo, G. M., Flynn, B.W., Kearns, L.J., Doughty, D.E., Gurwitch, R.H., et al. (2003). Case finding and mental health services for children in the aftermath of the Oklahoma City bombing. Journal of Behavioral Health Services and Research. 30, 215–227.

  150. 150.

    Stuber et al. (2002).

  151. 151.

    Stuber et al. (2002).

  152. 152.

    See Pfefferbaum, B., Call., J., and Sconzo, G. (1999). Mental health services for children in the first two years after the 1995 Oklahoma City terrorist bombing. Psychiatric Services, 50, 956–958. Brown, E.J., and Goodman, R.F. (2005). Childhood traumatic grief: An exploration of the construct in children bereaved on September 11. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology. 34, 248–259. And Allwood M., Bell-Dolan D., Husain, S. (2002). Children’s trauma and adjustment reactions to violent and nonviolent war experiences. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 41, 450–457.

  153. 153.

    See Stuber, J., Galea, S., Pfefferbaum, B., Vandivere, S., Moore, K., Fairbrother, G., et al. (2005). Behavior problems in New York City’s children after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 75, 190–200 and Koplewicz, H.S., Vogel, J.M., Solanto, M.V., Morrissey, R.F., Alonso, C.M., Abikoff, H., et al. (2002). Child and parent response to the 1993 World Trade Center bombing. Journal of Traumatic Stress. 15, 77–85.

  154. 154.

    An overview of key issues, may be found in Chiriboga, D. (2007). Cultural considerations. In: Bongar, B., Brown, L.M., Beutler, L.E., Breckenridge, J.N. and Zimbardo, P.G. (eds.). Psychology of Terrorism, Oxford, Oxford University Press.

  155. 155.

    Boscarino, J.A., Figley, C.R., and Adams, R.E. (2003). Fear of terrorism in New York after the September 11 terrorist attacks: Implications for emergency mental health and preparedness. International Journal of Emergency Mental Health. 5, 199–209.

  156. 156.

    Galea et al. (2002).

  157. 157.

    Thiel de Bocanegra, H. and Brickman (2004) Mental health impact of the World Trade Center attacks on displaced chinese workers. Journal of Traumatic Stress. 17(1), 55–62. Thiel de Bocanegra, H. Moskalenko, S. and Chan, P. (2005). PTSD and depression among displaced Chinese workers after the world trade center attack: A follow-up study. Journal of Urban Health. 82(3), 364–369.

  158. 158.

    Chiriboga 2007.

  159. 159.

    See Weinstein H.M., Sarnoff R.H., Gladstone E. & Lipson J.G. (2000). Physical and psychological health issues of resettled refugees in the United States. Journal of Refugee Studies, 13:303–327.

  160. 160.

    Kinzie, J.D., Boehnlein, J.K., Riley, M.A. et al. (2002). The effects of September 11 on Traumatised Refugees: Reactivation of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Journal of Nervous Disease. 190, 437–441.

  161. 161.

    Comas-Diaz, L., and Jacobsen, F.M. (2001). Ethnocultural allodynia. Journal of Psychotherapy Practice and Research. 10(4) 246–252.

  162. 162.

    Craig-Henderson and Sloan (2003).

  163. 163.

    Carter, R.T. (2007). Racism and psychological and emotional injury. The Counseling Psychologist. 35(1), 13–105.

  164. 164.

    Hall, N. (2005). Hate Crime. Cullumpton, Devon, UK. Willan Publishing.

  165. 165.

    See Esses, V.M., Dovidio, J.F., and Hodson, G. (2002). Public attitudes toward immigration in the United States and Canada in response to the September 11, 2001 ‘Attack on America’. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy. 2(1), 69–85.

  166. 166.

    See also the report ‘Policies on Integration and Diversity in some OSCE Participating States’ – An Explanatory Study prepared by the Migration Policy Group, regarding all countries, the conclusion was drawn that the ‘war on terror’ mainly affected Muslim immigrants, problematising their ability to integrate into liberal Western societies.’

  167. 167.

    Rubin, G.J., Brewin, C.R., Greenberg, N. et al. (2005). Psychological and behavioural reactions to the bombings in London on 7 July 2005: cross sectional survey of a representative sample of Londoners. British Medical Journal. doi:10.1136/bmj.38583.728484.3A

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    Rubin, G.J., Brewin, C.R. Greenberg, N. et al. (2007). Enduring consequences of terrorism: 7-month follow-up survey of reactions to the bombings in London on 7 July 2005. British Journal of Psychiatry. 190, 350–356.

  169. 169.

    See Brewin et al. (2000); Ozer et al. (2003).

  170. 170.

    Frey, B.S., Luchinger, S. and Stutzer, A. (2007). Calculating tragedy: assessing the costs of terrorism. Journal of Economic Surveys. 21(1), 1–24.

  171. 171.

    Maercker and Mehr (2006).

  172. 172.

    Rock (1998).

  173. 173.

    E.g. Canadian Resource Centre for Victims of Crime 2007.

  174. 174.

    Pfefferbaum, B. (2003). Victims of terrorism and the media. In: Andrew Silke (ed.). Terrorists, Victims and Society. Psychological Perspectives on Terrorism and Its Consequences, West Sussex, Wiley.

  175. 175.

    McDermott, R. and Zimbardo, P.G. (2007). The psychological consequences of terrorist alerts. In: Bongar, B., Brown, L.M., Beutler, L.E., Breckenridge, J.N. and Zimbardo, P.G. (eds.). Psychology of Terrorism, Oxford, Oxford University Press.

  176. 176.

    Kramer, M. Brown, A. Spielman, L. et al. (2004). Psychological reactions to the national terror-alert system. Poster number 4227. Presentation to the American Psychological Association.

  177. 177.

    Herman, J.L. (2003) The Mental Health of Crime Victims: Impact of Legal Intervention. Journal of Traumatic Stress. 16(2), 159–166.

  178. 178.

    See Herman (2003) and Goodey (2005).

  179. 179.

    Herman (2003).

  180. 180.

    E.g. Temkin (2002) or Buzawa, E.S. and Buzawa, C.W. (2002). Domestic Violence. The Criminal Justice Response. 3rd edition. Newbury Park, California Sage.

  181. 181.

    Peterson-Armour 2002.

  182. 182.

    See Temkin (2002) and Buzawa and Buzawa (2002).

  183. 183.

    Aebi et al. (2006).

  184. 184.

    See Brienen, M.E.I. and Hoegen, E.H. (2000). Victims of Crime in 22 European Countries. Nijmegen, the Netherlands, Wolf Legal Publishers.

  185. 185.

    See the following essay by McCauley: McCauley, C. (2007). War versus justice in response to terrorist attacks: competing frames and their implications. In: Bongar, B., Brown, L.M., Beutler, L.E., Breckenridge, J.N. and Zimbardo, P.G. (eds.). Psychology of Terrorism. Oxford, Oxford University Press.

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    In these cases it may be either considered a warcrime or a peacetime equivalent of a warcrime.

  187. 187.

    Gerwehr, S. and Hubbard, K. (2007). What is terrorism? In: Bongar, B., Brown, L.M., Beutler, L.E., Breckenridge, J.N. and Zimbardo, P.G. (eds.). Psychology of Terrorism, Oxford, Oxford University Press.

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    Pfefferbaum et al. (2003).

  189. 189.

    Dimaggio, C. and Galea, S. (2006). The behavioral consequences of terrorism: A meta-analysis. Academic Emergency Medicine. 13, 559–566.

  190. 190.

    See Galea et al. (2002).

  191. 191.

    See Schuster et al. (2001).

  192. 192.

    Galea, S., Vlahov, D., Resnick, H., Ahern, J., Susser, E., Gold, J., et al. (2003). Trends of probable post-traumatic stress disorder in New York City after the September 11 terrorist attacks. American Journal of Epidemiology. 158, 514–524.

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    Miguel-Tobal et al. (2006).

  194. 194.

    Starkman, M.S. (2006). The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, as psychological toxin. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 194, 547–550.

  195. 195.

    See Wayment, H.E. (2004). It could have been me: vicarious victims and disaster-focused distress. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 30, 515–529.

  196. 196.

    See Beutler et al. (2007).

  197. 197.

    Blanchard, E.C., Kuhn, E., Rowell, D.L., Hickling, E.J., Wittrock, D., Rogers, R.L., Johnson, M.R., and Steckler, D.B. (2004) Studies of the vicarious traumatisation of college students by the September 11th attacks: effects of proximity, exposure and connectedness. Behaviour Research and Therapy. 42, 191–205. Blanchard, E.B., Rowell, D., Kuhn, E., Rogers, R., and Wittrock, D. (2005). Posttraumatic stress and depressive symptoms in a college population one year after the September 11 attacks: The effect of proximity. Behaviour Research and Therapy. 43 (1), 143–150.

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    See Cohen-Silver, R., Holman, E.A., McIntosh, D.E et al. (2002). Nationwide longitudinal study of psychological responses to September 11. Journal of the American Medical Association. 288(10), 1235–1244; Ahern, J., Galea, S., Resnick, H., Kilpatrick, D., Bucuvalas, M., Gold, J., et al. (2002). Television images and psychological symptoms after the September 11 terrorist attacks. Psychiatry. 65, 289–300; Ahern, J., Galea, S., Resnick, H. and Vlahov, D. (2004).Television Images and Probable Posttraumatic stress disorder after September 11 the role of background characteristics, event exposures, and perievent panic. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disorder. 192, 217–226; Schuster, M.A., Stein, B.D., Jaycox, L. H. et al. (2001) A National survey of stress reactions after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. New England Journal of Medicine. 345:1507–1512.

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    Pfefferbaum 2003.

  200. 200.

    Ahern et al. 2002

  201. 201.

    Bernstein, K.T., Ahern, J., Tracy, M., Boscarino, J.A., Vlahov, D. and Galea, S. (2007). Television watching and the risk of incident probable posttraumatic stress disorder: a prospective evaluation. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 195, 41–47.

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    Cho, J., M.P. Boyle, H. Keum, M.D. Shevy, D.M. McCleod, D.V. Shah and Z. Pan (2003). Media, terrorism and emotionality: emotional differences in media content and public reactions to the September 11th terrorist attacks. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media. 47(3), 309–327.

  203. 203.

    See Tversky, A. and Kahneman, D. (1974). Judgment under Uncertainty. Heuristics and Biases. Science. 185, 1124–1131.

  204. 204.

    See Slovic, P. and Weber, E.U. (2002). Perception of Risk Posed by Extreme Events. Paper downloaded from http://www2.sfu.ca/media-lab/archive/2004/226jan2004/notes/slovic_wp_OnlinePDF.pdf

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    See Kasperson, R.E., Renn, O. and Slovic, P. et al. (1988). The social amplification of risk. Risk Analysis. 8, 177–187. And Breckenridge, J.N. and Zimbardo, P.G. (2007). The strategy of terrorism and the psychology of Mass-Mediated fear. In: Bongar, B., Brown, L.M., Beutler, L.E., Breckenridge, J.N. and Zimbardo, P.G. (eds.). Psychology of Terrorism, Oxford, Oxford University Press.

  206. 206.

    See also Breckenridge and Zimbardo (2007).

  207. 207.

    See Frey et al. (2007).

  208. 208.

    See Bartholomew, R. and Wessely, S. (2002). Protean nature of mass sociogenic illness. From possessed nuns to clinical and biological terrorism fears. British Journal of Psychiatry. 180, 300–306.

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    Hyams, K.C., Murphy, F.M. and Wessely, S. (2002). Responding to chemical, biological, or nuclear terrorism: The indirect and long-term health effects may present the greatest challenge. Journal of Health Politics, Policy, and Law. 27, 273–291. Beaton, R. Stergachis, A. Oberle, M. et al. (2005) The Sarin Gas Attacks on the Tokyo Subway? 10 years later/Lessons Learned. Traumatology. 11(2), 103–119.

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    Pastel, R. (2001). Collective behaviors: Mass panic and outbreaks of multiple unexplained symptoms. Military medicine. 166(12) 44–46.

  211. 211.

    Pastel 2001.

  212. 212.

    See Gigerenzer, G. (2004). Dread risk, September 11, and fatal traffic accidents. Psychological Science. 15, 286–287. Gigerenzer, G. (2006). Out of the frying pan into the fire: Behavioral reactions to terrorist attacks. Risk Analysis. 26(2), 347–351.

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    See Rothschild, M. (2001). Terrorism and You—The Real Odds, Policy Matters, AEI-Brookings Joint Center for Regulatory Studies, available at

    http://www.aei-brookings.org/policy/page.php?id=19#top.

  214. 214.

    Ito, H. and Lee, D. (2005). Assessing the impact of the September 11 terrorist attacks on U.S. airline demand. Journal of Economics and Business. 57(1), 75–95.

  215. 215.

    Gigerenzer (2006).

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    Greenberg, J., Solomon, S., and Pyszczynski, T. (1997). Terror management theory of self-esteem and social behavior: Empirical assessments and conceptual refinements. In Zanna, M.P. (Ed.). Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 29, pp. 61–139). New York: Academic Press. Pyszczynski, T., Solomon, S., and Greenberg, J. (2003). In the Wake of 9/11: The Psychology of Terror. Washington, DC, American Psychological Association.

  217. 217.

    See Pyszczynski et al. (2003).

  218. 218.

    See Pyszczynski et al. (2003).

  219. 219.

    See Pyszczynski et al. (2003).

  220. 220.

    See Landau, M. J. Solomon. S. Greenberg. J. et al. (2004). Deliver us from evil: The effects of mortality salience and reminders of 9/11 on support for President George W. Bush, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 30(9), 1136–1150.

  221. 221.

    Pyszcynski, T. (2004). What are we so afraid of? A terror management theory perspective on the politics of fear. Social Research. 71(4), 827–848.

  222. 222.

    Landau et al. (2004).

  223. 223.

    Pyszczynski et al. (2003).

  224. 224.

    Pyszczynski, T., Abdollahi, A., Solomon, S., et al. (2006). Mortality salience, martyrdom, and military might: The great Satan versus the axis of evil. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 32(4), 325–337.

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    Pyszczynski et al. (2003).

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    Jonas, E. Schimel, J. Greenbert, J., et al. (2002). The Scrooge effect: Evidence that mortality salience increases prosocial attitudes and behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 28(10), 1342–1353.

  227. 227.

    Smith, T.W., Rasinski, K.A., and Toce, M. (2001). America rebounds. A national study of public response to the September 11th terrorist attacks. Chicago, NORC.

  228. 228.

    See Rasinksi, K.A., Berktold, J., Smith, T.W., et al. (2002). America Recovers. Chicago, NORC.

  229. 229.

    Lerner, J. S., and Keltner, D. (2001). Fear, anger, and risk. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 81, 146–159.

  230. 230.

    Skitka, L.J., Bauman, C.W., Aramovich, N.P. and Scott-Morgan, G. (2006). Confrontational and preventative policy responses to terrorism: Anger wants a fight and fear wants “Them” to go away. Basic and Applied Psychology. 28(4), 375–384. See also Lerner, J.S., Gonzalez, R.M., Small, D.A., and Fischhoff, B. (2003). Effects of fear and anger on perceived risks of terrorism: A national field experiment. Psychological Science. 14, 144–150. Huddy, L., Feldman, S., and Cassese, E. (2007). On the distinct political effects of anxiety and anger. In: Crigler, A et al. (eds.). The Political Dynamics of Feeling and Thinking, University of Chicago Press.

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  1. INTERVICT, University of Tilburg Netherlands, 5000, LE, Tilburg, Netherlands

    Antony Pemberton

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  1. International Victimology, Tilburg University, Tilburg, 5000 LE, Netherlands

    Rianne Letschert

  2. International Victimology, Tilburg University, Tilburg, 5000 LE, Netherlands

    Antony Pemberton

  3. Leuvens Instituut vr Criminologie (LINC), Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Herbert Hooverplein 9, Leuven, 3000, Belgium

    Ines Staiger

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Pemberton, A. (2009). Needs of Victims of Terrorism. In: Letschert, R., Pemberton, A., Staiger, I. (eds) Assisting Victims of Terrorism. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-3025-2_3

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